Subject Name: CONTROL SYSTEMS

Subject Code: 10ES43

Prepared By: Brindha.M, Robina Gujral, Sreepriya kurup,

Shashirekha K(TE),Praveena(EEE), Shruthi(ML)

Department: Electronics and Communication

Date: 13/05/15

04/05/2025
 UNIT - 8

INTRODUCTION TO STATE SPACE

ANALYSIS

04/05/2025
 State-Space Modeling
• Alternative method of modeling a system than
– Differential / difference equations
– Transfer functions
• Uses matrices and vectors to represent the
system parameters and variables

04/05/2025
 Motivation for State-Space Modeling
• Easier for computers to perform matrix algebra
– e.g. MATLAB does all computations as matrix math
• Handles multiple inputs and outputs
• Provides more information about the system
– Provides knowledge of internal variables (states)

Þ Primarily used in complicated, large-scale systems

04/05/2025
 Transfer Functions vs. State-Space Models
• Transfer functions provide only input and output
behavior
– No knowledge of the inner workings of the system
– System is essentially a “black box” that performs some
functions

• State-space models also represent the internal

behavior of the system

04/05/2025
 Definitions
V – Input vector Y – Output vector
• Can be multiple inputs • A function of the input and the
• Written as a column vector present state of the internal
variables

 v1 t   y1 t  
 v t   y t 
vt   2  y t   2 
     
   
 vR t   y M t 

04/05/2025
 Definitions
X – State vector X – “Next state” vector
• Information of the current • Derivative of the state vector
condition of the internal • Provides knowledge of where
variables the states are going
• N is the “dimension” of the state – Direction (+ or -)
model (number of internal state – How fast (magnitude)
variables) • A function fo the input and the
present state of the internal
variables

04/05/2025
 DEFINITIONS
State:- The state of a dynamic system is the smallest set of
variables (called state variables) that must be known at any
given instant in order that, the future response of the system to
any specified input may be calculated from the given dynamic
equation. These are the set of variables such that the
knowledge of these variables at t=t0, together with the input
for t>=t0 completely determines the behaiour of the sytems for
any time t>=t0.

04/05/2025
 DEFINITIONS
State Variables: The state variables of a dynamic system are the smallest set of
variables which determine the state of the dynamic system. If at least n variables
x1(t),x2(t),………., xn(t) are needed to completely describe the behaviour of a
dynamic system (such that once
the input is given for t>=t0 and the initial state at t=t0 is specified, the future
state of the system is completely determined), then such n variables x1(t), x2(t),
……., xn(t) are a set of variables called STATE variables. It can also be noticed that
the state variables need not be physically measurable or observable quantities.
Practically, however, it is convenient to choose easily measurable quantities for
the state variables because optimal control laws will require the feedback of all
state variables with suitable weight.
State Space The n-dimensional space whose coordinate axes consist of
the x1 axis, x2 axis, ….. xn axis is called a state space. Any state can be
represented by a point in the state space.

04/05/2025
 State-Space Equations
General form of the state-space model
x t 
Two equations –
y t 

x t   f xt , vt , t 
y t   g xt , vt , t 

04/05/2025
 Linear State-Space Equations
x t   Axt  Bvt 
y t  Cxt  Dvt 

xt , x t   N 1 vectors A N N system matrix

vt   R 1 vector B N R input matrix
y t   M 1 vector C M N output matrix
D M R matrix representing direct
coupling from system inputs
to system outputs

If A, B, C, D are constant over time, then the system is also time invariant
→ Linear Time Invariant (LTI) system
04/05/2025
 Construction of State Equations from a
Differential Equation
(Let there be no derivatives of the input)

• The dimension of the state equations (number of state variables) should

equal the order of the differential equation
• Let one state variable equal the output (y(t))
• Let one state variable equal the derivative of the output

• Let one state variable equal the (N-1)-th derivative of the output (where N
is the order of the differential equation)
• Find the derivative of each of the newly defined state equations
– In terms of the other state variables and the outputs
• Write the state equations

04/05/2025
 The State Variables of a Dynamic System:

The time-domain analysis and design of control systems utilizes the concept
of the state of a system.

The state of a system is a set of variables such that the knowledge of these
variables and the input functions will, with the equations describing the
dynamics, provide the future state and output of the system.

04/05/2025
 For a dynamic system, the state of a system is described in terms of a set of
state variables

[ x1 ( t ) x 2 ( t )  x n ( t )]
The state variables are those variables that determine the future behavior of
a system when the present state of the system and the excitation signals are
known. Consider the system shown in Figure 1, where y1(t) and y2(t) are the
output signals and u1(t) and u2(t) are the input signals. A set of state
variables [x1 x2 ... xn] for the system shown in the figure is a set such that
knowledge of the initial values of the state variables [x1(t0) x2(t0) ... xn(t0)] at
the initial time t0, and of the input signals u1(t) and u2(t) for t˃=t0, suffices to
determine the future values of the outputs and state variables.

Input Signals x(0) Initial conditions

Output Signals
u1(t)
u(t) y(t)
u2(t) System System
Input Output
04/05/2025
 The state variables describe the future response of a system, given the
present state, the excitation inputs, and the equations describing the
dynamics.

A simple example of a state variable is the state of an on-off light switch.

The switch can be in either the on or the off position, and thus the state of
the switch can assume one of two possible values. Thus, if we know the
present state (position) of the switch at t0 and if an input is applied, we are
able to determine the future value of the state of the element.

The concept of a set of state variables that

represent a dynamic system can be illustrated in
terms of the spring-mass-damper system shown
k c
in Figure 2. The number of state variables chosen
to represent this system should be as small as
possible in order to avoid redundant state
m
variables. A set of state variables sufficient to
describe this system includes the position and the
velocity of the mass.
y(t) u(t)
04/05/2025
 The State Differential Equation:
The state of a system is described by the set of first-order differential
equations written in terms of the state variables [x1 x2 ... xn]. These first-order
differential equations can be written in general form as

x 1 a 11 x1  a 12 x 2   a 1n x n  b11 u1   b1m u m
x 2 a 21x1  a 22 x 2   a 2 n x n  b 21u1   b 2 m u m

x n a n1x1  a n 2 x 2   a nn x n  b n1u1   b nm u m

04/05/2025
 Thus, this set of simultaneous differential equations can be written in matrix
form as follows:
 x1   a 11 a 12  a 1n   x1 
       b11  b1m   u1 
d  x 2   a 21 a 22  a 2n   x 2  
        
 
dt           
       b n1  b nm   u m 
 x n   a n1 a n2  a nn   x n 

n: number of state variables, m: number of inputs.

The column matrix consisting of the state variables is called the state vector
and is written as
 x1 
x 
x  2 
 
 
04/05/2025
 xn 
 The vector of input signals is defined as u. Then the system can be
represented by the compact notation of the state differential equation as

x A x  B u
This differential equation is also commonly called the state equation. The
matrix A is an nxn square matrix, and B is an nxm matrix. The state differential
equation relates the rate of change of the state of the system to the state of the
system and the input signals. In general, the outputs of a linear system can be
related to the state variables and the input signals by the output equation

y C x  D u
Where y is the set of output signals expressed in column vector form. The
state-space representation (or state-variable representation) is comprised of
the state variable differential equation and the output equation.

04/05/2025
 We can write the state variable differential equation for the RLC circuit as

 1
0    1
x  C x    u(t)
1 R 
C

   0
 
L L
and the output as

y 0 R  x
The solution of the state differential equation can be obtained in a manner
similar to the approach we utilize for solving a first order differential equation.
Consider the first-order differential equation

x ax  bu
Where x(t) and u(t) are scalar functions of time. We expect an exponential
solution of the form eat. Taking the Laplace transform of both sides, we have
04/05/2025
 s X (s)  x 0 a X (s)  b U (s)
therefore,

x (0) b
X (s)   U (s)
s a s a

The inverse Laplace transform of X(s) results in the solution

t
x ( t ) e at x (0)  e a ( t   ) b u () d
0
We expect the solution of the state differential equation to be similar to x(t)
and to be of differential form. The matrix exponential function is defined
as

A2t 2 Ak t k
e At I  At    
2! k!
04/05/2025
 which converges for all finite t and any A. Then the solution of the state
differential equation is found to be

t
x ( t ) e At x (0)  e A ( t   ) B u () d
0

X (s) sI  A  x (0)  sI  A  B U (s)

1 1

where we note that [sI-A]-1=ϕ(s), which is the Laplace transform of ϕ(t)=eAt.

The matrix exponential function ϕ(t) describes the unforced response of the
system and is called the fundamental or state transition matrix.

t
x ( t ) ( t ) x (0)  ( t  ) B u () d
0

04/05/2025
 THE TRANSFER FUNCTION FROM THE STATE EQUATION

The transfer function of a single input-single output (SISO) system can be

obtained from the state variable equations.

x A x  B u
y C x
where y is the single output and u is the single input. The Laplace transform
of the equations

sX(s) AX(s)  B U (s)

Y (s) CX (s)

where B is an nx1 matrix, since u is a single input. We do not include initial

conditions, since we seek the transfer function. Reordering the equation

04/05/2025
 [sI  A ] X (s) B U (s)
X (s) sI  A  BU(s) (s)BU(s)
1

Y (s) C(s)BU(s)
Therefore, the transfer function G(s)=Y(s)/U(s) is

G (s) C(s)B
Example:
Determine the transfer function G(s)=Y(s)/U(s) for the RLC circuit as described
by the state differential function

 1
0    1
x  C x  u , y 0 R  x
1 R C
 0
    
L L
04/05/2025
  R 1
 1  1 s  L  
(s) sI  A   C
1
 s C   
sI  A  1  (s)  1
R s 
 s   L 
 L L
R 1
 (s) s 2  s 
L LC
Then the transfer function is

 R 
 s 
L  1   1
 
G (s) 0 R   (s) C (s)   C
 0
 1 s   
 L (s)  (s) 
R / LC R / LC
G (s)  
 (s) 2 R 1
s  s
L LC
04/05/2025
 State transition matrix

d
x(t )  Ax(t )  Bu (t )
dt
y (t ) Cx (t )  Du (t )
The behavior of x(t) et y(t) :
1. Homogeneous solution of x(t)
2. Non-homogeneous solution of x(t)
04/05/2025
 Homogeneous solution
x (t )  Ax(t ) 1 1
x(t ) L [( sI  A) ]x(0)
sX ( s )  x(0)  AX ( s )
e At x(0)
X ( s ) ( sI  A)  1 x(0)
State transition matrix

 (t ) e At L 1[( sI  A)  1 ]
x(t0 ) e At0 x(0)
 At 0
x(0) e x(t0 )
At  At 0 A( t  t0 )
x(t ) e e x(t0 ) e x(t0 )  (t  t0 ) x(t0 )
04/05/2025
 Properties 
 (t ) e At L 1[( sI  A)  1 ]

1.  (0) I
1
2.  (t )  ( t )
3. x(0)  ( t ) x(t )
4.  (t 2  t1 )  (t1  t0 )  (t 2  t0 )
k
5.  (t )  (kt )
04/05/2025
 Non-homogeneous solution
d
x(t )  Ax(t )  Bu (t )
dt
y (t ) Cx (t )  Du (t )

sX ( s )  x(0)  AX ( s )  BU ( s )
( sI  A) X ( s )  x(0)  BU ( s )
1 1
X ( s ) ( sI  A) x(0)  ( sI  A) BU ( s )
x(t ) L 1[( sI  A)  1 ]x(0)  L 1[( sI  A)  1 BU ( s )]
t
x(t )  (t ) x(0)   (t   ) Bu ( )d
0
04/05/2025
 t
x(t )  (t ) x(0)   (t   ) Bu ( )d
0
t
x(t )  (t  t0 ) x(t0 )   (t   ) Bu ( )d
t0
t
y (t ) C (t  t0 ) x(t0 )  C (t   ) Bu ( )d  Du (t )
t0

Zero-input response Zero-state response

04/05/2025
Example 1  x 1   0 1   x1   0
 x    2  3  x    1 u (t )
 2    2  
x(0) 0 0
T
let
t  2t
 2e  e e  1  e  2t 
 (t ) L 1[( sI  A)  1 ] e At  t  2t 
  2 e  2 e  e  t  2e  2 t 

t
x(t )  (t ) x(0)   (t   ) Bu ( )d
0

Ans: 1 3
 x1    2e  t  e  2t 
L 1[( sI  A)  1 BU ( s )]
 x   2 2
 2    2e  2e  2t 
 t

04/05/2025
  (t ) L 1[( sI  A)  1 ]
 x 1   0 1 0   x1   0 0
 x   0  4 3   x    1 0   u1 
 2    2   u 
 x 3    1  1  2  x3   0 1  2 
 x1 
y
 1  ( t ) 1 0 0  

 y (t )  0 0 1  x2 
 2   x 
 3

adj ( sI  A)
( sI  A)  1 
sI  A
 s 2  6 s  11 s  2 3 
1  2 
  3 s  2 3s
s ( s  4)( s  2)  3  3s  
 s4  s  1 s  4 s 
2


04/05/2025