Cell Structure

Vocabulary to know:
• Prokaryotic: cell contains no nucleus, no membrane-bound
organelles, but does have ribosomes and DNA

• Eukaryotic: cell has a nucleus, organelles, ribosomes and

DNA

• Unicellular: made up of one cell

• Multicellular: made up of many cells

• Autotroph: an organism that makes its own food

• Heterotroph: an organism that depends on others for food 2

Why Cells are Important
• What happens inside cells causes us to be
who we are. (Genes)

• All diseases start at the level of the cell.

• All growth and life starts from a single cell.

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Cell Theory

• Cells were discovered in 1665 by Robert Hooke.

• Early studies of cells were conducted by
• Mathias Schleiden (1838) - plant cells
•Theodor Schwann (1839) - animal cells

•Schleiden and Schwann proposed the Cell Theory.

• Cell Theory
1. All organisms are composed
of cells.

2. Cells are the smallest living

things.

3. Cells arise only from pre-

existing cells.

• All cells today represent a

continuous line of descent from
the first living cells.
Two Cell Types
1. Prokaryotic Cells

2. Eukaryotic Cells

• Defined by cell type

1.Eukarya
• Plantae
• Fungi
Eukaryotic
• Animalia
• Protista

2.Bacteria

3.Archaea
Prokaryotic
Types of cells

Prokaryote Eukaryote
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1. Prokaryotic Cells (Prokaryotes)
• Simplest, “primitive” cells with:
• NO membrane-bound organelles (“little
organs”)
• NO nucleus: genetic material floats free in
cell
• pro = before
• karyo = nucleus
• Example: Bacteria (Kingdom: Monera)
• 2 Subdivisions:
• 1. Eubacteria – “true bacteria”
• 2. Archaea – “ancient bacteria”
• Extremophiles: live in harsh
environments (hot, acidic, salty)
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 Prokaryotic Cell

• Prokaryotic Cell Characteristics:

• Simplest organisms - simple internal
organization

• Very small (1 to 10 microns across)

• Genetic material in the nucleoid
• No membrane-bound organelles
• Capsules
• Cytoplasm
Prokaryotic Cell Structure
• Prokaryotic cell walls
• Surround and protect cell and maintain cell
shape
• Composed of polysaccharides (sugar
coated)

• Bacterial cell walls composed of

peptidoglycan

• Archaean cell walls lack peptidoglycan.

The Glycocalyx (Physical barrier)
• Develops as a coating of repeating
polysaccharide units, protein or both

• Protects the cell

• helps the cell adhere to the environment

• Differ among bacteria in thickness,

organization, and chemical composition
• Slime layer- a loose shield that
protects some bacteria from loss of
water and nutrients
• Capsule-
Capsule glycocalyx is bound more
tightly to the cell and is denser and
thicker
 Bacterial Shapes, Arrangements, and Sizes
• Three general shapes
• Coccus- roughly spherical
• Bacillus- rod-shaped
• Coccobacillus- short and plump
• Vibrio- gently curved
• Spirillum- curviform or spiral-
shaped
• Pleomorphism- when cells of a
single species vary to some extent
in shape and size (in response to
environment)
2. Eukaryotic Cells (Eukaryotes)
• Eukaryotic Cell Characteristics:
• Unicellular or multicellular • More complex organisms
• highly organized structure
• Eu = true karyo = nucleus (compartmentalization) known as
endomembrane system
• Types of eukaryotes divided into
• Typically larger than prokaryote (10-
4 kingdoms:
100 microns)
1. Plantae 2. Fungi
• Genetic material in the membrane-
3. Animalia 4. Protista
bound nucleus
• Many membrane-bound organelles
• Cytoplasm
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Eukaryotic
Cells

Animal cell
Eukaryotic
Cells

Plant cell
Eukaryotic Cells

Plasma Membrane
• Contains cell contents
Protection: The plasma membrane protects the
cell from its environment.
• Double layer of phospholipids & proteins
Transport: The plasma membrane regulates
what enters and exits the cell, including nutrients
and toxic substances.

Structure: The plasma membrane helps maintain

the structure and integrity of the cell.

Cell signaling: The plasma membrane receives

chemical signals from neighboring cells and
builds intercellular communication.

Recognition: The plasma membrane acts as a

receptor.
Eukaryotic Cells
Nucleus, Nucleolus, Nuclear Envelope

Storing DNA: The nucleus stores the cell's DNA, which

contains the cell's genetic information.

Controlling cell activities: The nucleus regulates gene

expression, which controls many cellular activities,
including protein synthesis, cell division, and growth.

Protecting DNA: The nucleus protects the cell's DNA and

maintains its integrity.

Making ribosomes: The nucleus contains nucleoli, which

are the site where ribosomes are made. Ribosomes are
organelles that are important for protein synthesis.
 Eukaryotic Cells
Nucleus

• Largest most definitive organelle in the cytoplasm

• Surrounded by a nuclear envelope composed of 2 phospholipid bilayers
• Stores the genetic material of the cell as long separate chains of DNA
known as chromosomes

• Cell DNA is organized with proteins to form chromatin

- Chromosomes are tightly packed (condensed) with proteins inside the
nucleus into nucleosomes
- DNA is wound around histone proteins to resembles beads on a string
 Eukaryotic Cells
Nucleolus (plural, nucleoli)
• Dark staining zone within the
nucleus
• Composed of RNA
• Synthesis of ribosomal RNA
(rRNA) occurs here
- rRNA is involved in the
translation of DNA into protein
Eukaryotic Cells
Ribosomes

• Present in prokaryotic
and eukaryotic cells

• Composed of 2 subunits of
Ribosomal RNA and proteins.

• The two subunits associate to form complete Ribosomes

• Found in the cytoplasm and attached to internal membranes of the endoplasmic reticulum
• Important protein function is protein synthesis in cell = Translate the RNA code into
Proteins

• Other types of RNA assist with protein synthesis:

- mRNA and tRNA
 Endomembrane System

• A series of membranes throughout

the eukaryotic cytoplasm

• Divides cell into compartments

where different cellular functions
occur:
1. Endoplasmic Reticulum
2. Golgi Apparatus
3. Lysosomes
 Endomembrane System
1. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

• Membranes that create a network of channels throughout the cytoplasm

• Membrane continuous with the outer membrane of the nuclear envelope

• Location for protein synthesis

• Two Sections of the ER

1. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
2. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
 Endomembrane System
Golgi Apparatus

• Flattened stacks of interconnected membranes

folds (cisternae) known individually as Golgi
bodies

• Located peripheral to the nucleus and ER

• Function in packaging and distribution of
materials to different parts of the cell

• Synthesis of cell wall components

• Cis face of Golgi faces and receives products
from the ER

• Trans face of Golgi releases secretory vesicles

Endomembrane System
Lysosomes
• Membrane bound vesicles
containing digestive enzymes
to break down macromolecules
• Packaged and secreted by
Golgi apparatus
• Function to destroy cells or
foreign matter that the cell has
engulfed by phagocytosis
 Endomembrane
Vacuoles System
• ‘Blank spaces’
• Membrane-bound structures with a variety of functions
depending on cell type
• Functions of the vacuoles include:
• Isolating materials that might be harmful or a threat to the cell
• Containing waste products
• Containing water in plant cells
• Maintaining internal hydrostatic pressure or turgor within the cell
• Maintaining an acidic internal pH
• Containing small molecules
 Mitochondria

• ‘Power house of the cell”

• Present in all types of
eukaryotic cells

• Contain oxidative metabolism enzymes

for the chemical reactions of cellular respiration

- the transferring of energy within macromolecules to ATP

 Mitochondria Structure
• Surrounded by 2 membranes:
1. Smooth outer membrane
2. Folded inner membrane with layers (cristae)
- intermembrane space is located between the two membranes
- matrix within the inner membrane

• Similar in structure and function to chloroplasts of

photosynthesis

• Contain their own DNA (Mitochondrial DNA)

- Produce some essential proteins
 • Organelles present in cells of plants and some
Chloroplasts other eukaryotes (Kingdom Protista)
• Contains Chlorophyll for photosynthesis
• Surrounded by 2 membranes
- Inner membrane forms sacs known as
thylakoids
- Stacks of thylakoids are known as Grana
 Cytoskeleton
Cytoskeleton

• Network of protein fibers found in

all eukaryotic cells

• Supports the shape of the cell

• Keeps organelles in fixed

locations

• Helps move materials within the

cell
 Cytoskeleton
• Three Fiber Types of Cytoskeleton:

1. Actin Filaments – responsible for cellular

contractions, crawling, “pinching”
- Composed of actin protein subunits

2. Microtubules – provide organization to the cell and

move materials within the cell
- Composed of tubulin protein subunits

• Intermediate Filaments – provide structural stability

1. Composed of vimentin protein subunits
Extracellular Structures
• Extracellular structures:
• Cell Walls:
• plants
• fungi
• some protists

• Extracellular Matrix
• surrounding animal cells
What about Viruses?
-Are they alive?
• PROS • CONS
– Have genetic material (DNA or RNA) • Cannot grow or replicate
– Can replicate (with host) without host (dormant)
– Have a protein coat • Are not cells

What do you think?

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Viruses
• NOT ALIVE!!!

• Made of DNA (or RNA)

surrounded by a protein coat

• Are NOT cells & cannot grow

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Animal viruses
These viruses infect by invading the cells of animals, including humans. Prominent examples of
animal viruses include the influenza virus, mumps virus, rabies virus, poliovirus, Herpes virus,
etc.

Plant viruses
These viruses infect plants by invading the plant cells. Replication of plant viruses is obligate and
does not happen without a host. Well-known examples of plant virus include the potato virus,
tobacco mosaic virus (TMV), beet yellow virus, and turnip yellow virus, cauliflower mosaic virus,
etc.

Bacteriophage
The virus which infects bacterial cells is known as bacteriophage. There are many varieties of
bacteriophages, such as DNA virus, MV-11, RNA virus, λ page, etc.

Insect virus
The virus which infects insects is known as Insect virus, also called the viral pathogen of insects.
These viruses are considered as a powerful biocontrol agent in the landscape of modern
agriculture. Ascovirus virions and Entomopox virus, are best examples for insect virus.
• Airborne infections – Transmission of the virus through the air into the respiratory tract. E.g. Swine flu, and Rhinovirus.

• Fecal oral route – Transmission of the virus through the contaminated water or food. E.g. Hepatitis A virus, Poliovirus,
Rotavirus.

• Sexually transmitted diseases – Transmission of the virus through sexual contacts with the infected person. E.g. Retrovirus,
human papillomavirus, etc.

• Transfusion-transmitted infections- Transmission of the virus through the blood transfusion. E.g. Hepatitis B virus, Human
Immunodeficiency Virus, etc.

• Zoonoses -Transmission of the virus through the biting of infected animals, birds, and insects to human. E.g. Rabies virus,
Alpha virus, Flavivirus, Ebola virus, etc
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 Clostridium tetani
The hepatitis B virus (HBV) is a highly
contagious virus that infects the liver and
can cause acute or chronic disease
The pentavalent vaccine is a combination
of five vaccines that protects against five
life-threatening diseases: Diphtheria,
Tetanus, Pertussis (whooping cough),
Hepatitis B, and Hib (Haemophilus
influenzae type b)

Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) -Mycobacterium tuberculosis

Polio is caused
by the poliovirus,
a highly infectious
virus that attacks
the nervous
Extra slides
For Learning
Kingdom: Archaea
• Cell Structure: prokaryotic (no nucleus)

• Unicellular

• They can make their own food by a process called

chemosynthesis, or they can consume food.
(autotroph/heterotroph) Yellowstone Nat’l Park Hot Springs

• Reproduction: asexual by binary fission

• FYI:
• Typically found in extreme environments

• Thought to be the most primitive organisms on Earth 47

Kingdom: Bacteria
• Cell Structure: prokaryotic (no nucleus)

• Unicellular

• Autotrophic (chemosynthesis & photosynthesis)

or heterotrophic

• Reproduction: mostly asexual by binary fission,

though some can reproduce sexually by

conjugation.

• FYI:
• Not all bacteria are harmful to humans

• They come in many shapes

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Kingdom: Protists
• Cell Structure: eukaryotic Unicellular

• Autotrophic (photosynthesis) or
heterotrophic

• Reproduction: mostly asexual (binary

fission), but some sexual (conjugation)

• FYI:
• Mostly found in moist environments

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Kingdom: Fungi
• Cell Structure: eukaryotic Multicellular

• Heterotrophic- they’re decomposers

• Reproduction: asexual or sexual

• FYI:
• Some fungi can be harmful (Athlete’s foot,
ringworm)
• Others are useful: yeast, edible mushrooms

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Kingdom: Plants

• Cell Structure: eukaryotic

• Multicellular

• Autotrophic (photosynthesis)

• Reproduction: mostly sexual

• FYI:
• Carnivorous plants are NOT heterotrophs, they
can also do photosynthesis.
• Self-pollination is NOT asexual reproduction

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Kingdom: Animals
• Cell Structure: eukaryotic

• Multicellular

• Heterotrophic

• Reproduction: mostly sexual

• FYI:
• Some animals can reproduce asexually
(regeneration, budding,
fragmentation)- ex.: starfish

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