An Overview of Classification of Allergens and their

impact on immune system

Presented by

Preethi.P, 2024401001
01

What are Allergens?

Definition of
Allergens
Allergens are typically benign
substances that trigger an
abnormal immune response in
sensitized individuals. They can be
derived from various sources,
including biological, chemical, and
synthetic compounds. Common
allergens include pollen, pet
dander, and certain foods. Their
ability to provoke an allergic
reaction sets them apart from other
substances.
Chemical Nature of Allergens
Most allergens are proteins or glycoproteins with a molecular weight between
10,000 and 70,000 Daltons. They share structural similarities with other
immunogens but are often smaller. Cross-reactivity can occur, where exposure to
one allergen causes an immune response to another similar allergen due to their
chemical resemblance.

Allergenic Haptens
Allergenic haptens are low-molecular-weight chemicals that typically do not induce
an immune response on their own. They require binding to a larger protein, forming
a hapten-carrier complex to elicit an allergic reaction. This mechanism is particularly
notable in drug allergies, where certain medications can become allergenic when
they interact with proteins in the body.
02

Allergy
Definition of Allergy
Allergy, or hypersensitivity, is an immune system response to a substance that is
normally harmless to most people. This can include foods, pollen, or animal
dander. The condition was first defined by von Pirquet in 1906, marking an
important development in understanding how the body reacts differently to certain
allergens.

Prevalence of Allergy
Allergies are widespread, affecting approximately 30% of the global population in
varying degrees. While many individuals may experience mild allergic reactions,
some can develop severe, life-threatening symptoms, necessitating medical
attention. The severity of allergic reactions is influenced by individual factors,
including genetics and the specific allergen involved.
Predisposing
Factors for
Allergy
Several factors increase an
individual's likelihood of developing
allergies. These include hereditary
predisposition, where children of
allergic parents have a higher risk.
Dysfunction in the endocrine system,
increased nerve excitability, and the
buildup of metabolic waste also play
significant roles. Additionally, liver
health and psychological factors like
stress can exacerbate allergic
conditions.
03

The General
Mechanism of Allergy
01

Sensitization Phase
Entry of Allergen
Allergens can enter the body through various routes including inhalation (pollen,
dust mites)
Ingestion (food proteins), injection (insect venom), or skin contact. Common
allergens affect
Antigen Presentation by Dendritic
• different individuals in unique ways, triggering the subsequent immune
Cellsresponse.
In the sensitization phase, allergen exposure leads to its capture by antigen-
presenting cells (APCs), particularly dendritic cells. These cells process the
allergen and present it to naïve T-helper (Th0) cells in the lymph nodes, initiating
the immune response.
IgE Class Switching and Mast Cell Sensitization
During the sensitization phase, B cells undergo class switching influenced by
cytokines IL-4 and IL-13, resulting in the production of IgE antibodies. These IgE
antibodies bind to high-affinity FcεRI receptors on mast cells and basophils,
sensitizing them for future encounters with the same allergen. This process is
crucial for a rapid immune response upon re-exposure.
02

Effector Phase
Immediate Phase Reaction
Upon subsequent exposure to the same allergen, cross-linking of IgE on mast cells
and basophils occurs, triggering a massive release of mediators. This leads to an
immediate hypersensitivity reaction characterized by symptoms such as nasal
congestion and bronchoconstriction, occurring within seconds to minutes.

Mediators Released from Mast

Cells
Mediators like histamine, leukotrienes, and prostaglandins are released from mast
cells and basophils during the immediate phase reaction. Histamine contributes to
vasodilation and increased vascular permeability, while leukotrienes induce
bronchospasm and mucus production. This mediator release causes a rapid onset of
allergic symptoms.
Late-Phase Reaction
The late-phase reaction occurs 6 to 24 hours after allergen exposure, being
characterized by the recruitment of inflammatory cells, including eosinophils and Th2
cells. This phase amplifies chronic allergic responses and results in persistent
inflammation, tissue remodeling, and breathing difficulties, particularly in asthma.
04

Common Types of
Allergens
01

Inhalant Allergens
Definition of inhalant allergens
Inhalant allergens are airborne particles that enter the body through the
respiratory system. They are a leading cause of allergic diseases, particularly
affecting the respiratory tract.

Sources of inhalant
allergens
Common sources include pollen from
trees, grasses, and weeds; house dust
mites; animal dander from pets; mold
spores found in humid environments;
and various air pollutants from
industrial emissions.
02

Ingestant Allergens
Definition of ingestant allergens
Ingestant allergens are substances found in food and beverages that cause allergic
reactions when ingested. Unlike inhalants, these allergens can enter the
bloodstream and trigger systemic reactions, affecting multiple organs.

Common ingestant
allergens
Common ingestant allergens include
dairy products, such as milk proteins,
eggs containing ovalbumin, peanuts and
tree nuts, seafood, particularly shellfish,
and wheat, which contains gluten that
can provoke allergic inflammation.
03

Injectant Allergens
Definition and
common types of
injectant allergens
Injectant allergens are substances that
enter the body directly through
injections, stings, or bites, leading to
potential allergic reactions in sensitive
individuals. These allergens can cause
severe anaphylactic reactions, which
can be life-threatening. Common
injectant allergens include insect
venom from stings of bees, wasps, and
hornets; specific drugs such as
penicillin, cephalosporins, anesthetics,
and vaccines; and blood products like
plasma transfusions and
immunoglobulin therapy.
04

Contactant Allergens
Definition and
common types of
contactant allergens
Contactant allergens are
substances that cause localized
allergic reactions upon direct
contact with the skin or mucous
membranes. Unlike other allergens,
these affect the immune response
through skin exposure, leading to
hypersensitivity reactions. Common
contactant allergens include
cosmetic products like perfumes
and hair dyes, metals such as nickel
and cobalt found in jewelry, latex
used in medical gloves and devices,
and poisonous plants like poison ivy
or oak.
05

Infectant Allergens
Definition and sources of infectant allergens
Infectant allergens are metabolic byproducts produced by living microorganisms that
can cause chronic infections and allergic responses in sensitized individuals. These
allergens provoke immune reactions that contribute to persistent health issues.
Infectant allergens can originate from various sources, including bacteria like
Staphylococcus and Streptococcus, fungi such as Aspergillus and Candida, and
parasites including hookworms and tapeworms. These sources can contribute to
allergic responses and infections.
05

Common Allergic
Disorders
01

Allergic Gastroenteropathy
Definition and Overview
Allergic gastroenteropathy is a localized reaction in the gut due to IgE-
mediated responses triggered by ingested allergens. This condition leads to
inflammation of the intestinal lining, resulting in protein loss and nutrient
malabsorption.
Common Allergens
The main allergens associated with allergic gastroenteropathy include milk,
eggs, peanuts, soy, shellfish, gluten, and wheat proteins. These allergens
can provoke significant immune responses, especially in sensitive
individuals.

Symptoms and Effects

Symptoms often include gastrointestinal protein loss, leading to edema and
anemia, alongside nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. In severe cases,
particularly in children, allergic reactions can escalate rapidly, necessitating
prompt medical attention.
02

Allergic Rhinitis
Definition
Allergic Rhinitis is an IgE-mediated allergic response occurring in the nasal
mucosa and conjunctiva, representing a prevalent allergic disease worldwide.

Common Allergens
The most common allergens responsible for allergic rhinitis include pollen
from trees, grasses, and weeds, fungal spores, house dust mites, and animal
dander.

Symptoms
Symptoms involve itching in ears, sneezing, nasal congestion, runny nose, red,
itchy, watery eyes, post-nasal drip, and sore throat.
03

Allergic Asthma
Definition
Allergic asthma is an IgE-mediated inflammatory condition affecting the bronchial
mucosa, leading to symptoms of airway inflammation, bronchoconstriction, and
excessive mucus production due to allergen exposure.

Common Allergens
Common allergens associated with allergic asthma include pollen, dust mites,
mold spores, pet dander, cockroach droppings, and various airborne pollutants.

Symptoms
Symptoms typically involve shortness of breath, difficulty exhaling, wheezing,
coughing, chest tightness, and a reliance on rescue inhalers due to narrowing
airways.
06

Allergen Immunotherapy
AIT Administration Phases

Administration of Allergen Extracts

Allergen immunotherapy (AIT) involves the gradual introduction of allergen
extracts in increasing doses. This can be done through subcutaneous
injections (SCIT) or sublingual tablets (SLIT). The goal is to desensitize the
immune response to the allergens over time.

Dentritic Cells Modulate T-cell

Responses
In the initial phases of AIT, regulatory T cells (Tregs) are induced. These Tregs
help to modulate the immune response by shifting the balance away from Th2-
mediated inflammation. The secretion of anti-inflammatory cytokines like IL-10
and TGF-β plays a vital role in suppressing allergic responses.
Long-Term Tolerance Maintenance

With sustained exposure to allergens

during AIT, there is a gradual decrease in
the production of Th2 cytokines and IgE,
while the levels of IgG4 rise. This shift
promotes long-term tolerance, which can
persist even after the treatment
concludes, facilitated by memory Tregs
and the induction of regulatory B cells
(Bregs).
07

Allergy Skin Testing

Definition of Allergy Skin Testing
Allergy skin testing is a diagnostic method used to identify specific allergens
that trigger hypersensitivity reactions in individuals. By introducing small
amounts of allergens into the skin, healthcare providers can observe the
immune response to determine what substances an individual is allergic to.

Purpose of Allergy Skin

Testing
The primary purpose of allergy skin testing is to ascertain the specific
allergens responsible for allergic reactions in a patient. This helps in
developing effective treatment plans, including allergen avoidance strategies
and immunotherapy options.

Common Conditions Diagnosed

Allergy skin testing can help diagnose various allergic conditions, including
allergic rhinitis (hay fever), asthma, food allergies, and allergic dermatitis. It is
particularly effective in identifying IgE-mediated allergies.
01

Skin Prick Test

02

Intradermal Test (IDT)

03

Patch Test (APT)

08

Allergic Treatments
Conclusion
Allergic diseases can significantly
impair daily activities, professional
life, and emotional well-being.
Individuals may experience
difficulties in social interactions,
sleep disturbances, and a negative
impact on physical health.
Effective management of allergies
is essential for improving the
quality of life for affected
individuals. With ongoing research
and advancements in therapy,
individuals suffering from allergies
can expect better outcomes and
improved quality of life.
Thank you!
References:

Murphy, K., Weaver, C., & Janeway, C. (2017). Janeway’s Immunobiology (9th ed.). Garland
Science.

Durham, S. R., Shamji, M. H., & Bellas, A. (2019). Mechanisms of Allergen Immunotherapy and
Tolerance Induction. Nature Reviews Immunology, 19(2), 120-134.

Holgate, S. T., & Wenzel, S. (2020). Advances in Biologic Therapies for Severe Allergies and
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Asthma. New England Journal of Medicine, 382(12), 1108-1120.
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