UNIT 2

PROTECTIONAL RELAYS
Over Current Relay
• The overcurrent relay is defined as the relay, which operates only when the value of the
current is greater than the relay setting time. It protects the equipment of the power system
from the fault current.
Pick Up Current of Relay
• In all electrical relays, the moving contacts are held in place by a continuous force, known as
the controlling force.
• This force keeps the contacts in their normal positions and can be gravitational, spring-based,
or magnetic.
• The deflecting force moves the relay’s contacts from their normal position, opposing the
controlling force.
• In normal conditions, this force is weaker than the controlling force, so the relay doesn’t
operate.
• When the actuating current in the relay coil increases, the deflecting force also rises. When it
surpasses the controlling force, the relay starts to operate. This current is called the pickup
current of the relay.
Current Setting of Relay
• The minimum pick up the value of the deflecting force of an electrical relay is constant.
Again the deflecting force of the coil is proportional to its number of turns and the current
flowing through the coil.
• Now, if we can change the number of active turns of any coil, the required current to reach
at minimum pick value of the deflecting force, in the coil also changes. That means if
active turns of the relay coil are reduced, then proportionately more current is required to
produce desired relay actuating force.
• Similarly, if active turns of the relay coil are increased, then proportionately reduced
current is required to produce same desired deflecting force.
• The same model relays can be used in different systems, and their pickup current is
adjusted based on system requirements. This adjustment is called the current setting of the
relay. It’s done by adding taps to the coil, which are connected to a plug bridge. The
number of active turns in the coil changes when a plug is inserted at different points in the
bridge.
Plug Setting Multiplier of Relay
Time Setting Multiplier of Relay

So far by adjusting relay operating time, both of the factors to be adjusted.

• The adjustment of traveling distance of an electromechanical relay is commonly known
as time setting.
• This adjustment is commonly known as time setting multiplier of relay. The time setting
dial is calibrated from 0 to 1 in steps of 0.05 sec.
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Directional Relay or Earth Fault Relay
• An overcurrent relay will operate for fault current flow in any direction, i.e., either in
forward or in the reverse direction.
• In order to achieve the operation of the relay in the forward direction, a directional feature
is added to the overcurrent relay by adding a directional relay to the overcurrent relay,
such a relay will respond to fault flow in a particular direction.
Principle of Directional Overcurrent Relay :
• A directional overcurrent relay operates on the same principle as that of an overcurrent
relay.
• But in an overcurrent relay, the driving torque is developed due to the magnetic fields
produced by the operating current of the circuit given through a current transformer.
• While in the case of directional overcurrent relay the driving torque is developed due to
the magnetic fields produced by both the operating current and voltage of the circuit in
which it is connected for protection.
• The relay operates when the current exceeds a predetermined set value in a specified
direction.
Construction of Directional Overcurrent Relay :
The schematic diagram of the directional overcurrent relay is shown in the figure given below.
It consists of two relay units mounted in a common case, namely
• Directional relay unit, and
• Non-directional or overcurrent relay unit.
Directional element:
• It is essentially a directional power relay which operates when power flows in a specific
direction.
• The potential coil of this element is connected through a potential transformer (P.T.) to the
system voltage.
• The current coil of the element is energised through a C.T. by the circuit current. This
winding is carried over the upper magnet of the non-directional element.
• The trip contacts (1 and 2) of the directional element are connected in series with the
secondary circuit of the overcurrent element.
• Therefore, the latter element cannot start to operate until its secondary circuit is completed.
In other words, the directional element must operate first (i.e. con­tacts I and 2 should close)
in order to operate the overcurrent element.
Non-directional element:
• It is an overcurrent element similar in all respects to a non-direc­tional overcurrent relay
described in diagram.
• The spindle of the disc of this element carries a moving contact which closes the fixed
contacts (trip circuit contacts) after the operation of direc­tional element.
• It may be noted that plug-setting bridge is also provided in the relay for current setting
but has been omitted in the figure for clarity and simplicity.
• The tappings are provided on the upper magnet of overcurrent element and are connected
to the bridge.
Operation:
• Under normal operating conditions, power flows in the normal direction in the circuit
protected by the relay.
• Therefore, Induction Type Directional Overcurrent Relay (upper element) does not operate,
thereby keeping the overcurrent element (lower element) unenergised.
• However, when a short-circuit occurs, there is a tendency for the current or power to flow in
the reverse direction. Should this happen, the disc of the upper element rotates to bridge the
fixed contacts 1 and 2. This completes the circuit for overcurrent element.
• The disc of this element rotates and the moving contact attached to it closes the trip circuit.
• This operates the circuit breaker which isolates the faulty section. The two relay elements are
so arranged that final tripping of the current controlled by them is not made till the following
conditions are satisfied :
1. current flows in a direction such as to operate the directional element.
2. current in the reverse direction exceeds the pre-set value.
3. excessive current persists for a period corresponding to the time setting of overcurrent
element.
Distance Relay
• Distance protection relay principle differs from other forms of protection because their
performance does not depend on the magnitude of the current or voltage in the protective
circuit but it depends on the ratio of these two quantities.
• It is a double actuating quantity relay with one of their coil is energized by voltage and the
other coil is energized by the current.
• The relay operates only when the ratio of voltage and current falls below a set value.
• During the fault the magnitude of current increases and the voltage at the fault point decreases.
• The ratio of the current and voltage is measured at the point of the current and potential
transformer. The voltage at potential transformer region depends on the distance between the
PT and the fault.
• If the fault is nearer, measured voltage is lesser, and if the fault is farther, measured voltage is
more.
• Hence, assuming constant fault impedance each value of the ratio of voltage and current
measured from relay location comparable to the distance between the relaying point and fault
point along the line.
• Hence such protection is called the distance protection or impedance protection.
• It is very commonly used in the protection of transmission lines.
Application of Distance Protection Relay
Impedance Type Distance Relay
• The relay whose working depends on the distance between the impedance of the faulty
section and the position on which relay installed is known as the impedance relay or
distance relay. It is a voltage controlled equipment.
• The relay measures the impedance of the faulty point, if the impedance is less than the
impedance of the relay setting, it gives the tripping command to the circuit breaker for
closing their contacts.
• The impedance relay continuously monitors the line current and voltage flows through the
CT and PT respectively. If the ratio of voltage and current is less than the relay starts
operating then the relay starts operating.
Principle of Operation of Impedance Relay

• In the normal operating condition, the value of the line voltage is more than the current.
But when the fault occurs on the line the magnitude of the current rises and the voltage
becomes less.
• The line current is inversely proportional to the impedance of the transmission line. Thus,
the impedance decreases because of which the impedance relay starts operating.
• The figure below explains the impedance relay in much easier way. The potential
transformer supplies the voltage to the transmission line and the current flows because of
the current transformer. The current transformer is connected in series with the circuit.
• Consider the impedance relay is placed on the transmission line for the protection of the
line AB. The Z is the impedance of the line in normal operating condition. If the
impedances of the line fall below the impedance Z then the relay starts working.
• Let, the fault F1 occur in the line AB. This fault decreases the impedance of the line below
the relay setting impedance. The relay starts operating, and its send the tripping command
to the circuit breaker. If the fault reached beyond the protective zone, the contacts of the
relay remain unclosed.
Operating Characteristic of an Impedance Relay
• The voltage and the current operating elements are the two important component of the
impedance relay.
• The current operating element generates the deflecting torque while the voltage storage
element generates the restoring torque. The torque equation of the relay is shown in the
figure below

• The -K3 is the spring effect of the relay. The V and I are the value of the voltage and
current. When the relay is in normal operating condition, then the net torque of the relay
becomes zero.
• If the spring control effect becomes neglected, the equation becomes

• The operating characteristic concerning the voltage and current is shown in the figure
below. The dashed line in the image represents the operating condition at the constant
line impedance.
• The operating characteristic of the impedance relay is shown in the figure below.
• The positive torque region of the impedance relay is above the operating characteristic
line. In positive torque region, the impedance of the line is more than the impedance of
the faulty section.
• Similarly, in negative region, the impedance of the faulty section is more than the line
impedance
• The impedance of the line is represented by the radius of the circle. The phase angle
between the X and R axis represents the position of the vector.
• If the impedance of the line is less than the radius of the circle, then it shows the positive
torque region. If the impedance is greater than the negative region, then it represents the
negative torque region.
Quadrilateral Relay
• A quadrilateral characteristic is best suited to ELD lines. It possesses an ideal distance relay
characteristic. Its characteristic can be designed to just enclose the fault area of the line to be
protected, see the explanation of the term fault area.
• Such a characteristic is least affected by power surges, fault resistance and overloads.
• Thus, it is seen that a quadrilateral characteristic is an ideal characteristic for the protection of
ELD lines. It is also quite suitable for short and medium lines.
• A static relay gives a better quadrilateral characteristic than a combination of electromagnetic
relays.
• To realise a quadrilateral or any other multilateral characteristic a multi-input phase comparator
is employed. The term multi-input comparator is used for a comparator which has more than
two inputs.
• If more than one two-input comparators are used to realise a complex characteristic, the relay
will be faster than a single multi-input comparator. But the drawback of the combination of
two-input comparators is that the outputs of each comparator do not go active at the same time.
• To overcome this difficulty, the output of each comparator has to be prolonged for a short time
which sometimes leads to erratic tripping.
Realisation of Quadrilateral Characteristic
• To realise a quadrilateral characteristic, a multi-input phase comparator, as shown in Fig.
is employed. In a multi-input comparator, all the input signals are compared with each
other.
• The resultant characteristic is the area enclosed by the lines and circles resulting from all
these comparsions.
• The phase comparison between IXr and V gives a straight line characteristic, as shown in
Fig. 6.51(a). The characteristics resulting from the phase comparison of other inputs are
shown in Fig. 6.51(b), (c), (d) and (e). The proof for the characteristics shown in Fig.
6.51(d)
• The proofs for the other characteristics are given at the end of this chapter in the appendix.
The resultant characteristic is shown in Fig. 6.51(f). The MHO circle will not interfere
with the rectangular characteristic as the diameter of the circle passes through the corners
of the rectangle.
• The desired characteristic is shown in Fig. 6.51(g). In this case, the MHO circle is an
undesired element, which can be eliminated if at least one of the quantities(IZr – V) and V
is pulsed.
• To take care of the resistance fault near the bus, a characteristic shown in Fig. 6.51(h) is
obtained giving a 10° shift in the characteristic. This is obtained by shifting IXr and IRr
by 10°. For this, Xr is replaced by an impedance having a phase angle of 80°.
• A capacitor is placed in parallel with Rr for 10° shift in IRr