Lecture 3

CELL BIOLOGY
 Term gene was coined by
early 1900s by Danish
botanist Willhelm
Johannsen
 Thought it was a good term
to describe the particular
unit of inheritance.
 There are several types of
studies of genetics.
 Here are 5 different
approaches…

STUDY OF GENETICS
 Cellular and molecular: focuses on the
very basic level of cell development
and genetic transmission. These
geneticists can develop genetic
therapies for certain diseases or
determine the precise makeup of DNA
for a particular organism.
 Population Genetics: Concerned with
trends and differences within various
populations both through the molecular
and observable level. Can provide
insight into the evolutionary history of
that population.

FIELDS OF GENETICS
 (Classic) Mendelian Genetics: Looks at pedigrees of related individuals
(plant or animal) and is interested in trait heritability. Pedigrees are still
used today.
 Phylogenetic field: Determines evolutionary relationships, such as the
closeness to our primate relatives. Molecular genetics greatly impacts this
field present-day.

 Behavioral Genetics: Focuses on the influence genetics may have on

behavior. Ex: honeybees and location of a flower. Ex: Ducks flying “south”
for the winter.
 This
is the carrier of your
genetic information
 Basic unit of DNA (and
RNA) is a molecule
entitled…
 Sugar,phosphate, and a
nitrogenous base make
up the nucleotide
 DNA is assembled from
four different nucleotide
units

DNA 5
 DNA is able to do 3 things:
– Able to replicate
– Make proteins (to facilitate cell function)
– Coordinates activity of those proteins (RNA)
 DNA: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qy8dk5iS1f0
 RNA: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yt9NDEpz_Po

DNA
DNA, CONT’D
 Purines(AG) are
always opposite the
pyrimidines (CT)

RNA (another nucleic acid)

•Critical during protein synthesis
•Comes in three forms

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 Basicunit or
“building block” of
life.
 Every organism on
this planet is made
up of a cell(s).
 Protozoa is made up
of ___ cell.
 Otherorganisms, if
seen by the naked
eye, are multicellular.

THE CELL
 prokaryotic cell eukaryotic cell
 (no nucleus) (DNA in nucleus)

THE CELL
EUKARYOTIC CELL
 cell
membrane a/k/a plasma
membrane
– regulates the transport of materials into and out
of cell
– governs communication and coordinated activity
between cells
 cytoplasm
– fluid-filled space within the cell that surrounds
the nucleus
– contains organelles

IMPORTANT COMPONENTS OF
EUKARYOTIC CELLS:
 Organelles
– The term itself, originates from
“organs”, therefore, each organelle
performs a specific operation within
the cell.
– internal membrane-bound structures
– provide structural support and cellular
motility
– First organelle identified was the
nucleus

IMPORTANT COMPONENTS OF
EUKARYOTIC CELLS:
 Mitochondria “mommy DNA”
– site of energy production for the cell
– production of ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
– Organelle
– http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vjpAEeaFzO0
– contains its own (maternal) DNA
 endoplasmic reticulum
– where metabolic reactions take place
 ribosomes
– site of protein synthesis

IMPORTANT COMPONENTS OF
EUKARYOTIC CELLS:
 somatic cells
– the cells of the body that are not sex cells

 gametes
– the sex cells (genetic material will be held)
 sperm
 eggs (Ova)

SOMATIC CELLS AND GAMETES

 2-3 meters (6-9 feet) of DNA is coiled in the
nucleus of each somatic cell

 chromatin - the dispersed, uncoiled strands of

DNA as it exists during the interphase of the
cell cycle
 chromosome - structures composed of
condensed DNA and supporting proteins

CHROMOSOMES AND CELL

DIVISION
 autosomes
– any of the chromosomes other than the sex
chromosomes

 sex chromosomes
– chromosomes X and Y
 XX = female
 XY = male

AUTOSOMES & SEX

CHROMOSOMES
  human
karyotype:
 (somatic cells)
46 
chromosomes
 (23 pair)

 44 autosomes
 +

2 sex
chromosomes
 diploid number:
– full complement of paired chromosomes in
a somatic cell
– in humans, the diploid number is 46

 haploid number:
– the number of chromosomes found in a
gamete (sex cell)
– representing one from each pair found in a
diploid somatic cell
– in humans, the haploid number is 23

DIPLOID AND HAPLOID

 homologous chromosomes
– members of the same pair of chromosomes (or
autosomes)
 locus
– the location of a gene on a chromosome
– (plural is loci)
 alleles
– alternative versions of a gene

MORE ABOUT CHROMOSOMES:

 homozygous
– having the same allele at the loci for a gene on
both members of a pair of homologous
chromosomes (or autosomes)
 heterozygous
– having two different alleles at the loci for a gene
on a pair of homologous chromosomes (or
autosomes)

… AND MORE ABOUT

CHROMOSOMES
 Mitosis is when somatic cells replicate and lead
to the formation of two identical daughter cells
 Meiosis is the process that creates the
gametes, where cells have the haploid number
of the genetic information (chromosomes)

MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS

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 Genotype=genetic makeup of an
individual
 Phenotype=observable or
measurable feature of an
individual of an organism

TERMS
 Gregor Mendel (1822-1884): Austrian monk,
who, between 1856 and 1868 conducted plant
breeding experiments.
 Developed the nature of heredity, aka
Particular of Inheritance.
 This experimental work displays the
nonblending process of inheritance.

MENDELIAN GENETICS
STRUCTURAL GENES VS. REGULATORY
GENES
 Structural: Responsible
for body structures such
as hair, nails, blood, and
tissue
 Regulatory: Turn other
genes on and off,
basically, telling certain
tissues and bones when
to stop growing
 How do microbiologists
find these genes?
 Epigenetics?
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 One area of interest for geneticists is
disease. Perhaps the most well-known
chromosomal condition is Trisomy 21
 Trisomy 21 (aka Down Syndrome)
 Down Syndrome is a result of the extra
chromosome on the 21st pair
 Not necessarily inheritable, more just a
genetic abnormality. 1 in 1000 births
 Individuals with Downs may have
mental and physical incapability's
which is in direct correlation with the
physical appearance.

CHROMOSOMAL
DISORDERS, GENETIC
DISEASES, AND THE
ENVIRONMENT
 Third chromosome on pair 18
(aka Edward’s Syndrome)
 Trisomy 18, also known as
Edwards syndrome, is a
condition which is caused by
a error in cell division, known
as meiotic disjunction.
 1 in 6000 births; occurs in all
human populations but
females more likely to be
affected (80%)

TRISOMY 18
OTHER CHROMOSOMAL
DISORDERS
 Patau syndrome (Trisomy
13): An extra
chromosome is present
on pair 13.
 Causes severe
abnormalities that are
present at birth.
 1500 children in the U.S.
are born with this per
year. Less than 10% live
past the first year.
 Mortality is usually
contributed to heart
defects and incomplete
brain development.
 Considered a
Trinucleotide Repeat
Disorder
 Codon (a sequence of three
nucleotides that together form a
unit of genetic code in a DNA or
RNA molecule) CAG
 Huntington’s is deadly
and results in the person
having severe
neurological damage.

HUNTINGTON DISEASE
MOST PREVALENT
DISEASES/DISORDERS
 Diseases and disorders that most commonly cause
shortened life expectancies are the ones that are the
result of the relationship between environmental and
genetic factors
 Examples?
 More than one-third of adults, and nearly 1 in 5
children under 19 years are ______.
 Recent studies suggest that certain genes (that are
specific to appetite regulation) vary by alleles
individual to individual.
 Considered a “disease of the developed world” and is
highly stigmatized
 Every day, more than 115 people in the United States die after
overdosing on opioids.
 The misuse of and addiction to opioids—including prescription pain
relievers, heroin, and synthetic opioids such as fentanyl—is a serious national
crisis that affects public health as well as social and economic welfare.
 From an evolutionary perspective, we understand the underlying
significance and evaluate its three-fold nature: biology, psychology, and
social influences.
 Effect of drugs on emotion: mammalian sensors originally increased fitness
and were not so much related to “happiness” (dopamine “effect”)
 Positive emotions, such as euphoria and excitation, motivate towards
increased gain and fitness state, whereas negative emotions, for instance
anxiety and pain, evolved as defenses by motivating towards managing
potential threats or decreases in fitness level.
 It is suggested that the motivation towards drug abuse comes from reward
systems within the mammalian brain causing an initial "like" for a substance
and leading to the insatiable "want" that correlates with abuse.

SUBSTANCE ABUSE: AN
EVOLUTIONARY PERSPECTIVE
 DNA is the blueprint for all living things,
therefore it is imperative to understand this
from an evolutionary perspective

 It is important to review this material in your

text, as the terms can be difficult to discern
and understand

CONCLUSION
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