RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

LECTURE 2
REVIEW OF LECTURE I

INTRODUCTION
INTERESTING STATISTICS ON EBOLA
• http://www.businessinsider.com/scary-ebola-
facts-and-numbers-2014-9
 REVIEW OF LECTURE I
• Define research in general and health systems research in particular

• Enumerate the characteristics of research

• Identify the different types of research

• List the essential features of health systems research

• Describe the broad divisions (steps) involved in the research

process

• Explain the roles of research in development

 Types of research
• Descriptive verses analytical

• Descriptive research includes surveys and fact –finding inquiries

of different kinds

• Its main purpose is description of the state of affaires as it exists

at present.

• Its main characteristics is that the researcher has no control over

the variables. He/she can only report what happened or what is
happening e.g frequency of shopping, preferences of people.
 Types of research
• Analytical Research

• The researcher has to use facts or information already

available, analyze these to make critical evaluation of the
material

• Conceptual verses Empirical:

• Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s)

or theory. It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers
to develop new concepts
 Types of Research
• Empirical/experimental research

• Relies on experience or observation alone. It is data-based

research, coming up with conclusions which are capable of
being verified by observation or experiment

• Such research is characterized by experimenter’s control over

the variables

• Evidence gathered through experiments is considered to be

the most powerful support possible for a given hypothesis
 Types of Research
• Other types of research are variations of one
or more of the above stated approaches
• From the point of view of time: one-time
research or longitudinal
• Based on environment in which research is
done: field setting research or laboratory
based or simulation
 Types of Research
• Clinical or diagnostic research: follows case study
methods or in-depth approaches to reach the basic
causal relations

• Exploratory vs formalized:
• Exploratory research mainly focuses on the
development of hypotheses rather than their testing

• Formalized research studies are those with substantial

structure and with specific hypothesis to be tested
 REVIEW EXERCISE
• Students present their topic of interest
RESEARCH PROPOSAL
DEVELOPMENT
 Steps
• Topic identification
• Research problem
• Research questions
• Research objectives
• Formulation of hypothesis
• Literature review
• Budgeting and resources for the research
 TOPIC IDENTIFICATION
• Learning objectives

– Examine the cyclical nature of the development of a research

proposal

– Describe the principles underlying whether a problem situation is

researchable

– List the criteria for selecting a research topic

– Identify and select his/her own topic (health problem) for

research based on certain guidelines.
 Introduction
• The development of a health project goes through a number of
stages.

• Formulation of the research proposal is the major task in the process

of developing a research project.

• The proposal draws on all the preparatory steps of the research

process and pulls them together in a document describing the
rationale and the methodology proposed for research.

• The proposal is a basis for approval and funding. After approval, the
proposal is used as a blueprint during implementation of the project.
 Introduction
• It should be noted that development of a
research proposal is often a cyclical process.

• The process is not always linear.

• It is a usual practice to go up and down on the

developed proposal and make the necessary
revisions.
 Questions to be answered before
developing the research proposal.
• Is there evidence to indicate that the research proposal
focuses on a problem of priority importance?

• Was the given health problem identified by relevant

groups of the health system?

• Was the problem adequately analysed to include all

possible contributory factors from different sectors?

• Was it clearly stated?

 Research Problem
• Refers to some difficulty which a researcher
experiences in the context of either
theoretical or practical situation and wants to
obtain a solution for the same.
 Whether a problem requires research depends on three
conditions:

• There should be a perceived difference or discrepancy

between what it is and what it should be;

• The reason(s) for this difference should be unclear (so

that it makes sense to develop a research question);
and

• There should be more than one possible and plausible

answer to the question (or solution to the problem).
 Example 1

• Problem situation: In district “ Y “ a report showed

that in the first month there were 500 children under
one year old who started immunization, but at the
end of the year it was found out that there were only
25 children who completed their vaccination.

• Discrepancy: All the 500 children at district “Y

“should have completed their vaccination but only 5%
out of those who started vaccination have completed.
 Example 1
• Problem (research) question: why did only 5% of
the children complete their vaccination?

• Definite answer: Out of the 1 hospital, 2 health

centers and 10 health stations found in district “Y”
only 2 health stations were functioning, the rest
were closed due to insecurity in the area.

• If all the given facts are true, there is no need of

undertaking a research.
 Example 2
• Problem situation: In district “Z” (population
150,000) there are 2 health centers, 1 hospital and
15 health stations and all of them function smoothly.
However, at the end of the year it was found that the
vaccination coverage was only 25%.

• Discrepancy: Although district “Z” had 100%

availability of health services and at least 80% of the
children should have had full vaccinations the
coverage was only 25% as seen above.
 Example 2
• Problem question: What factors influence the low EPI
coverage in district “Z”?
• Possible answers:
– Mothers might have problems for not attending in the
postnatal clinic sessions.
– The vaccination programs might not have been integrated;
hence children might have missed opportunities in getting
immunization.
– The follow up of defaulting children might not be effective
and other reasons.
• Thus, the above problem situation is researchable.
 Criteria for prioritizing problems for
research
• Before deciding on a research topic, each proposed
topic must be compared with all other options.

• The selection and analysis of the problem for research

should involve those who are responsible for the
health status of the community.

• This would include managers in the health services,

health-care workers, and community leaders, as well
as researchers.
a) Criteria for selecting a research topic
1. Relevance: The topic you choose should be a priority
problem:
Questions to be asked include:
 How large or widespread is the problem?
 Who is affected?
 How severe is the problem?

2. Avoidance of duplication: Investigate whether the

topic has been researched. If the topic has been
researched, the results should be reviewed to explore
whether major questions that deserve further
investigation remain unanswered. If not, another topic
should be chosen.
a) Criteria for selecting a research topic

3. Feasibility: Consider the complexity of the

problem and the resources you will require to
carry out the study.
– Thought should be given first to personnel, time,
equipment and money that are locally available. In
situations where the local resources necessary to
carry out the project are not sufficient, you might
consider sources available at the national level.
a) Criteria for selecting a research topic
4. Political acceptability: It is advisable to research a topic
that has the interest and support of the authorities. This
will facilitate the smooth conduct of the research and
increases the chance that the results of the study will be
implemented.

5. Applicability of possible results and recommendations:

Is it likely that the recommendations from the study will
be applied? This will depend not only on the blessing of
the authorities but also on the availability of resources
for implementing the recommendations.
a) Criteria for selecting a research topic
6. Urgency of data needed: How urgently are the
results needed for making a decision? Which
research should be done first and which can be
done late?

7. Ethical acceptability: We should always consider

the possibility that we may inflict harm on
others while carrying out research. Therefore, it
will be useful to review the proposed study.
b) Scales for rating research topics
• Relevance
1 = Not relevant
2 = Relevant
3 = very relevant

• Avoidance of duplication
1 = Sufficient information already available
2 = Some information available but major issues not covered
3 = No sound information available on which to base
problem-solving
b) Scales for rating research topics
• Feasibility
1 = Study not feasible considering available resources
2 = Study feasible considering available resources
3 = Study very feasible considering available resources

• Political acceptability
1 = Topic not acceptable
2 = Topic somewhat acceptable
3 = Topic fully acceptable
b) Scales for rating research topics
• Applicability
1 = No chance of recommendations being implemented
2 = Some chance of recommendations being implemented
3 = Good chance of recommendations being implemented

• Urgency
1 = Information not urgently needed
2 = Information could be used but a delay of some months
would be acceptable
3 = Data very urgently needed for decision-making
b) Scales for rating research topics
• Ethical acceptability
1 = Major ethical problems
2 = Minor ethical problems
3 = No ethical problems

• N.B. The above rating should be based on the

existing data and not on mere assumptions.
 Exercises
1. In a certain district (population, 150,000), sanitary conditions
are very poor (only 5% of households have latrines) and
diseases connected with poor sanitation, such as,
gastroenteritis and worms are very common. The Ministry of
Health has initiated a sanitation project that aims at
increasing the number of households with latrines by 20%
each year. The project provides materials and the population
should provide labour. Two years later, less than half of the
target has been reached.

• State the discrepancy, research question and the possible

answers. Is this problem situation researchable?
 Exercise
• Go to the nearby health institution and identify three
health problems. Discuss about these health problems and
rate them based on the selection criteria.

• When rating these problems based on the criteria, use the

rating scale indicated at the bottom of the table (you can
also refer to the "Scales for rating research topics”
presented). You can do the exercise in small groups.

• Which topic do you select for research? Defend your first

choice in a plenary session.
 DEFINING THE RESEARCH PROBLEM
• Components of a research problem can stated as under:

1) There must be an individual or a group which has some difficulty or

the problem
2) There must be some objective(s) to be attained at. If one wants
nothing, one cannot have a problem
3) There must be alternative means (or the cause of action) for
obtaining the objectives(s) one wishes to attain
4) There must remain some doubt in the mind of a researcher with
regard to the selection of alternatives. This means the research
must answer the question concerning the relative efficiency of the
possible alternatives
5) There must be some environment (s) to which the difficulty pertains
 DEFINING THE RESEARCH PROBLEM
• A research problem is one that requires a
researcher to find out the best solution for the
given problem i.e to find out by which cause
of action the objective can be attained
optimally in the context of a given
environment.
 DEFINING THE RESEARCH PROBLEM
• Some factors may complicate the problem e.g.

– The environment may change affecting the efficiencies of the

courses of action or the values of the outcomes

– The number of alternative causes of action may be very large

– Persons not involved in making the decisions may be affected by it

and react favorably or unfavorably, etc

• All such elements (or at least the important ones) may be

thought of in the context of a research problem
 SELECTING THE PROBLEM
• Subject which is overdone should not be normally chosen, for it will
be difficult to shed any new light in such a case
• Controversial subject should not be the case of an average researcher
• Avoid narrow or vague problems
• The subject selected for research should be familiar and feasible so
that the related research material or sources of research are within
one’s reach
• The importance of the subject, qualifications and training of the
researcher, the costs involved, the cost factor are few other factors to
be considered.
• The selection of the a problem must be preceded by a preliminary
study.
NECESSITY OF DEFINING THE PROBLEM
• Often we hear that a problem clearly stated is
a problem half solved

• The problem to be investigated has to be

defined unambiguously for that will help to
discriminate relevant data from the irrelevant
ones.
NECESSITY OF DEFINING THE PROBLEM
• Question like :
– What data are to be collected?
– What characteristics of data are relevant and need
to be studied?
– What relations are to be explored?
– What techniques are to be used for the purpose?
• Are key in defining a problem
 TECHNIQUE INVOLVED IN DEFINING A
PROBLEM
• Defining a problem involves the task of laying
down boundaries within which a researcher
shall study the problem with a pre-determined
objective in view.

• Defining a research problem properly and

clearly is a crucial part of a research study and
must in no case be accomplished hurriedly
 TECHNIQUE INVOLVED IN DEFINING A
PROBLEM
• The technique for the purpose involves the
undertaking of the following steps:
1) Statement of the problem in a general way
2) Understanding the nature of the problem
3) Surveying the available literature
4) Developing the ideas through discussion
5) Rephrasing the research problem into a working
proposition
 TECHNIQUE INVOLVED IN DEFINING A
PROBLEM
• Statement of the problem in a general way
– First of all the problem should be stated in a broad
general way , keeping in view either some
practical concern or some scientific or intellectual
interest.
• Understanding the nature of the problem:
– Understand the origin and nature of the problem
clearly. This can be accomplished by discussing it
with those who first raised it.
 TECHNIQUE INVOLVED IN DEFINING A
PROBLEM
• Surveying the available literature
• All available literature concerning the problem at hand
must be surveyed and examined before a definition of the
research problem is given

• Developing the ideas through discussions

• Discussion concerning a problem often produce useful
information. Various new ideas can be developed through
such exercise
 TECHNIQUE INVOLVED IN DEFINING A
PROBLEM
• Rephrasing the research problem;
– Finally the researcher must sit to rephrase the
research problem into a working proposition