Classification and

Applications of Subatomic
and Elementary Particles
Embark on a captivating journey into the realm of subatomic
and elementary particles, the very foundation of our universe.
This presentation aims to unravel the mysteries of these
minute building blocks of matter, shedding light on their
classification, properties, and far-reaching applications that
shape our understanding of the cosmos and drive
technological advancements. Prepare to explore the
fundamental forces governing their interactions and the
methodologies employed to study these elusive particles.

by Rabi Joshi
What are Subatomic Particles?
Defining the Infinitesimal A Glimpse into History

Subatomic particles are defined as the constituents Our journey into the subatomic world begins with a
of matter that are smaller than an atom. The brief exploration of the history of atomic theory,
exploration of these particles has revolutionized from Dalton's atomic theory to Thomson's discovery
physics, pushing the boundaries of human of the electron and Rutherford's unveiling of the
knowledge and transforming our comprehension of nuclear atom. These pivotal discoveries laid the
the material world. These tiny particles form the groundwork for understanding the atom's structure
very fabric of reality, shaping everything from the and its subatomic components. Key milestones
smallest molecules to the largest stars. include the postulation of atoms as indivisible
spheres by Dalton, the discovery of electrons by J.J.
Thomson, and Rutherford’s gold foil experiment
revealing the positively charged nucleus.
Elementary Particles: The Fundamental Building Blocks

Unbreakable Units Fermions vs. Bosons Quarks and Leptons

Elementary particles are the fundamental Elementary particles fall into two main Quarks come in six flavors: up, down,
constituents of matter that cannot be categories: fermions and bosons. charm, strange, top, and bottom. Up-type
broken down into smaller components. Fermions, such as quarks and leptons, quarks have an electric charge of +2/3,
They represent the most basic units of are matter particles that make up the while down-type quarks have a charge of
existence, forming the foundation upon tangible substances around us. Bosons, -1/3. Leptons include the electron, muon,
which all other particles and structures on the other hand, are force-carrying tau, and their corresponding neutrinos.
are built. Unlike composite particles, particles that mediate the fundamental Electrons, muons, and taus carry an
elementary particles are not made up of interactions between fermions. The electric charge of -1, while neutrinos are
any smaller entities. Standard Model categorizes all known neutral and possess very small mass. The
elementary particles and their Standard Model posits that all matter is
interactions. This model includes six composed of these fundamental
quarks, six leptons, and several bosons, particles. Force-carrying bosons mediate
each playing a crucial role in shaping the the interactions between fermions,
universe. facilitating processes like
electromagnetic interactions, strong
nuclear interactions, and weak nuclear
interactions.
Fermions: Matter Particles

Quarks
Quarks are fundamental constituents of protons and
neutrons. Up and down quarks form ordinary matter,
while charm, strange, top, and bottom quarks are Leptons
heavier and unstable. Quarks are never found in Leptons include electrons and neutrinos. Electrons
isolation due to color charge, a phenomenon known orbit the nucleus, responsible for chemical bonding.
as confinement. This is due to the nature of the strong Neutrinos interact weakly and are produced in nuclear
force, which increases with distance, effectively reactions. There are three "flavors" of neutrinos:
trapping quarks within composite particles. electron neutrino, muon neutrino, and tau neutrino.
Neutrino oscillation occurs as neutrinos change flavor
during travel, an intriguing quantum mechanical
phenomenon. The three flavors of neutrinos are
distinct and interact differently with matter,
contributing to the diversity of particle interactions.
Hadrons: Composite Particles

Definition Baryons Mesons

Hadrons are composite particles Baryons are hadrons composed Mesons are hadrons composed of
made of quarks held together by of three quarks. Protons, with a one quark and one antiquark.
the strong force. These particles (up, up, down) quark Pions and kaons are examples
are not fundamental, but rather composition, have a positive that mediate the strong force
combinations of quarks bound by charge and are stable. Neutrons, between nucleons in the nucleus.
the exchange of gluons. The with a (up, down, down) quark Pions have a mass of
strong force, also known as the composition, are neutral and approximately 140 MeV/c^2 and
color force, is responsible for unstable outside the nucleus. play a crucial role in nuclear
confining quarks within hadrons, Protons and neutrons form the force transmission. Kaons,
preventing them from existing in atomic nuclei of all elements. containing strange quarks,
isolation. The mass of a proton is contribute to the understanding
approximately 938.3 MeV/c^2, of strangeness conservation in
while the mass of a neutron is particle interactions.
slightly higher at 939.6 MeV/c^2.
Bosons: Force Carrier Particles
Photon Gluon
The photon is the carrier of the The gluon is the carrier of the strong force,
electromagnetic force, encompassing light responsible for holding quarks together
and all electromagnetic radiation. It is within hadrons. It is massless and mediates
massless and travels at the speed of light the strong interaction between quarks and
(299,792,458 m/s). Photons mediate gluons. Gluons are unique in that they also
interactions between charged particles, carry color charge, allowing them to
governing phenomena like light emission interact with each other, leading to the
and absorption. confinement of quarks within hadrons.

Higgs Boson
W and Z Bosons
The Higgs boson is associated with the
W and Z bosons are the carriers of the
Higgs field, which gives particles mass.
weak force, responsible for radioactive
Discovered in 2012 at CERN, its mass is
decay and other weak interactions. These
around 125 GeV/c^2. The Higgs
are massive particles, with masses around
mechanism, involving the Higgs field and
80-90 GeV/c^2. The weak force governs
Higgs boson, explains why some particles
processes like beta decay, where a neutron
have mass while others do not, shaping our
transforms into a proton, an electron, and
understanding of fundamental particle
an antineutrino.
properties.
Objective Methodologies and Instrumentation

Particle Accelerators
Particle accelerators collide particles at high energies to study their interactions. The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at
CERN collides protons at nearly the speed of light, probing the fundamental forces and particles of nature. Linear
Accelerators (LINACs) are used for cancer therapy and research, accelerating particles in a straight line for precise
treatments. The LHC is the world's largest and most powerful particle accelerator, pushing the boundaries of high-
energy physics.
Particle Detectors
Particle detectors detect and measure the properties of particles. Types include cloud chambers, bubble chambers, wire
chambers, and calorimeters. Calorimeters measure the energy of particles by absorbing them and measuring the heat
produced. Wire chambers detect charged particles by measuring ionization. These detectors are essential for observing
and characterizing the particles produced in high-energy collisions.

Spectrometers
Spectrometers separate particles based on their mass and charge. Mass spectrometry is used in chemistry and biology
to identify molecules by measuring their mass-to-charge ratio. Spectrometers provide crucial information about the
composition and properties of unknown substances, advancing various scientific fields.
Applications: Medical Imaging and Treatment

PET
Positron Emission Tomography (PET) uses radioactive isotopes to create 3D images of the body. Isotopes emit
positrons, which annihilate with electrons, producing gamma rays. Gamma rays are detected to create
detailed images, revealing metabolic activity and identifying tumors.

Radiation Therapy
Radiation therapy uses high-energy particles to kill cancer cells. Linear accelerators
produce electron beams or X-rays to target tumors, while proton therapy uses protons
to deliver targeted radiation with minimal damage to surrounding tissue. These
techniques improve cancer treatment precision and reduce side effects.

MRI
MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) uses magnetic fields and
radio waves to create images of organs and tissues, based on
nuclear magnetic resonance properties of atoms. MRI provides
detailed anatomical information without using ionizing radiation.
Applications: Nuclear Energy and Research

10% 90% 14
Nuclear Fission Nuclear Fusion Carbon Dating
Nuclear fission involves splitting Nuclear fusion combines light Carbon dating uses radioactive
heavy nuclei (like uranium) to nuclei (like hydrogen isotopes) to isotopes to determine the age of
release energy. A chain reaction release energy. This process occurs materials, based on the decay rate
occurs as neutrons released in in the Sun, powering stars. of Carbon-14. This technique is
fission cause further fission events. Research is ongoing to develop used in archaeology and
Nuclear power plants use practical fusion power, offering a paleontology to date ancient
controlled fission to generate potentially clean and sustainable artifacts and fossils.
electricity, providing a significant energy source. Fusion requires
portion of global energy. Nuclear extreme temperatures and
fission provides a high energy pressures, posing significant
output, but also produces technological challenges.
radioactive waste.
Conclusion: The Ongoing Quest
Elementary particle physics provides the foundation for understanding the fundamental laws of nature. Its
applications are widespread, impacting medicine, energy, and technology. The ongoing quest to explore dark
matter, dark energy, and the unification of forces promises groundbreaking discoveries in the years to come.

Future research will delve deeper into the mysteries of the universe, seeking to unravel the nature of dark
matter and dark energy, which make up the majority of the universe's mass-energy content. Efforts to unify
the fundamental forces will continue, aiming to create a single, comprehensive theory that describes all
interactions in nature.

The study of subatomic particles remains one of the most exciting and important areas of scientific inquiry,
pushing the boundaries of human knowledge and driving technological innovation. As we continue to explore
the infinitesimally small, we gain a deeper understanding of the universe and our place within it.