BIODIVERSITYDr.

Vimal Kishore
Department of Life Science
School of Life Science
Central University of Karnataka, Kalaburagi
 Biodiversity, short for biological diversity, is the variety of life on Earth in all its forms. It encompasses the different plants,
animals, fungi, and microorganisms that make up our planet's ecosystems. This diversity includes genetic variation within
species, the variety of species themselves, and the different ecosystems where these species live.

 Biodiversity is essential for the health and balance of our planet. It provides us with numerous benefits, including:
 Ecosystem Services: Healthy ecosystems provide us with clean air and water, fertile soil, pollination for crops, and climate
regulation.
 Food and Medicine: A wide variety of plants and animals are sources of food and traditional medicines. Biodiversity is a crucial
resource for developing new drugs and treatments.
 Economic Benefits: Biodiversity supports many industries, such as agriculture, forestry, fisheries, and tourism.
 Cultural Significance: Many cultures have deep connections to nature and biodiversity, which is reflected in their traditions,
art, and spirituality.
 Biodiversity Is the Variety of Life
• Biodiversity, or biological diversity, is the variety of life on the earth.

• It has four components.

• One is species diversity, the number and abundance of the different kinds of species living in an ecosystem. Estimates of the
number of species on the earth range from 7 million to 100 million, with a best guess of 7–10 million species. So far, biologists
have identified about 2 million species—most of being insects.

• The second component of biodiversity is genetic diversity, which is the variety of genes found in a population or in a species.
Genes contain information that gives rise to traits that can be passed on to offspring during reproduction. Species whose
populations have greater genetic diversity have a better chance of surviving and adapting to environmental changes.

• The third component, ecosystem diversity, refers to the earth’s diversity of biological communities such as deserts,
grasslands, forests, mountains, oceans, lakes, rivers, and wetlands. Biologists classify terrestrial (land) ecosystems into biomes
—large regions such as forests, deserts, and grasslands characterized by distinct climates and certain prominent species
(especially vegetation).

• The fourth component of biodiversity is functional diversity—the variety of processes such as energy flow and matter cycling
that occur within ecosystems as species interact with one another in food chains and food webs.
5. Temporal Diversity:
• Variation in biodiversity over time.
• Includes changes in species composition, abundance, and distribution through ecological succession or evolutionary
processes.

6. Spatial Diversity:
• Variation in biodiversity across different geographic locations.
• Includes differences in species richness, community composition, and ecosystem structure between different regions.
 Values of Biodiversity

Biodiversity, the variety of life on Earth, offers a multitude of values that benefit humanity in diverse ways.
Social Values
• Cultural Heritage: Biodiversity is deeply intertwined with human cultures, providing inspiration for art, music, literature, and
spirituality.
• Recreational Opportunities: Nature-based activities like hiking, birdwatching, and wildlife photography contribute to human well-
being and economic growth.
• Educational Value: Biodiversity serves as a natural laboratory for scientific research and education, fostering a deeper understanding
of ecological processes.

Ethical Values
• Intrinsic Value: Many believe that all life forms have an inherent right to exist, regardless of their utility to humans.
• Intergenerational Equity: It is our ethical responsibility to preserve biodiversity for future generations.

Aesthetic Values
• Natural Beauty: Biodiversity contributes to the beauty of our planet, inspiring awe and wonder.
• Psychological Well-being: Spending time in nature has been shown to reduce stress and improve mental health.

Optional Values
• Economic Value: Biodiversity provides a range of economic benefits, including food, medicine, building materials, and genetic
resources.
• Ecological Services: Ecosystems provide essential services such as pollination, water purification, climate regulation, and soil fertility.
• Future Potential: Biodiversity holds the potential for future discoveries and innovations, such as new medicines or sustainable
technologies.
 Threats to Biodiversity: Unfortunately, human activities are putting increasing pressure on biodiversity, leading to its loss.
Some of the major threats include:
 Habitat Loss and Fragmentation: Deforestation, urbanization, and other land-use changes destroy habitats and fragment
ecosystems, isolating populations.
 Overexploitation: Overfishing, overhunting, and unsustainable harvesting practices deplete populations and can lead to
extinction.
 Pollution: Air, water, and soil pollution degrade habitats and harm organisms.
 Climate Change: Rising temperatures, changing precipitation patterns, and more frequent extreme weather events disrupt
ecosystems and threaten species.
 Invasive Species: Non-native species introduced to new areas can outcompete native species and disrupt ecosystems.

 Protecting Biodiversity: Protecting biodiversity is crucial for the well-being of both humans and the planet. Here are some
ways we can help:
 Sustainable Practices: Support sustainable agriculture, forestry, and fishing practices that minimize environmental impact.
 Reduce Consumption: Reduce your consumption of resources and choose products that are sustainably sourced.
 Support Conservation Organizations: Donate to or volunteer with organizations working to protect biodiversity and
endangered species.
 Educate Yourself and Others: Learn about biodiversity and its importance, and share your knowledge with others.
 Advocate for Policy Change: Support policies that protect biodiversity and promote sustainable development.
Biome map of India (Source: Roy et al., 2006)
 India's diverse geography and climate have led to a rich variety of ecosystems, resulting in a unique biogeographic
classification.
 India's major biogeographic zones:

1. Trans-Himalayan Zone:
• High-altitude, cold desert region in Ladakh and parts of Himachal Pradesh.
• Sparse vegetation, adapted to extreme cold and arid conditions.
• Unique fauna, including the elusive Snow Leopard.

2. Himalayan Zone:
• Mountainous region, ranging from temperate forests to alpine meadows.
• Diverse flora and fauna, including endangered species like the Red Panda and the Himalayan Black Bear.

3. Indian Desert (Thar Desert):

• Arid region in Rajasthan and parts of Gujarat.
• Adapted to extreme heat and low rainfall.
• Unique flora, including drought-resistant plants like cacti and succulents.
• Fauna includes the Great Indian Bustard and the Desert Fox.

4. Semi-Arid Zone:
• Transitional zone between the desert and the fertile plains.
• Characterized by scrubland and grasslands.
• Supports a variety of wildlife, including the Indian Gazelle and the Blackbuck.
5. Gangetic Plain:
• Fertile floodplain of the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers.
• Supports diverse agriculture and rich biodiversity.
• Home to the endangered Ganges River Dolphin and the Royal Bengal Tiger.

6. Deccan Plateau:
• Plateau region in South India.
• Diverse landscapes, including deciduous forests, grasslands, and scrubland.
• Supports a variety of wildlife, including the Indian Elephant and the Indian Leopard.

7. Western Ghats:
• Mountain range along the western coast of India.
• Tropical rainforests and evergreen forests.
• High biodiversity, including endemic species like the Nilgiri Tahr and the Lion-tailed Macaque.

8. Eastern Himalayas:
• Mountainous region in Northeast India.
• Tropical and subtropical forests.
• High biodiversity, including the One-horned Rhinoceros and the Golden Langur.

9. Andaman and Nicobar Islands:

• Tropical islands in the Bay of Bengal.
• Diverse marine ecosystems and rainforests.
• Unique flora and fauna, including the Andaman Teal and the Nicobar Megapode.
10. Coastal Zones:

• Coastal regions along the Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal.

• Mangrove forests, coral reefs, and marine ecosystems.
• Supports diverse marine life, including sea turtles and dolphins.
India is recognized as one of the 17 megadiversity countries in the world, boasting a rich and diverse array of flora and fauna.
Within its borders, there are four major biodiversity hotspots:

 The Himalayas:
• This region encompasses the entire Indian Himalayan range, including parts of Pakistan, Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan, China, and
Myanmar.
• It's characterized by a diverse range of ecosystems, from alpine meadows to subtropical forests.
• It's home to a variety of endangered species, including the Snow Leopard, Red Panda, and Himalayan Black Bear.

 Indo-Burma Region:
• This region includes parts of northeastern India, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, and southern China.
• It's known for its lush tropical forests and high levels of endemism.
• It's home to a variety of endangered species, including the Irrawaddy Dolphin and the Asian Elephant.

 Western Ghats:
• This region is located along the western coast of India.
• It's characterized by tropical rainforests, evergreen forests, and grasslands.
• It's home to a variety of endemic species, including the Nilgiri Tahr and the Lion-tailed Macaque.

 Sundaland:
• This region includes the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, as well as parts of Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei, and the
Philippines.
• It's characterized by tropical rainforests and coral reefs.
• It's home to a variety of marine species, including the dugong and the Irrawaddy Dolphin.
Megadiversity hotspots are regions with exceptionally high levels of biodiversity and a significant number of endemic species. These
areas are crucial for the planet's ecological balance and provide a wealth of resources and services to humanity.

 Significance of Megadiversity hotspots:

Ecological Importance
• Biodiversity Reservoirs: They house a vast array of plant and animal species, contributing to global biodiversity.
• Ecosystem Services: These regions provide essential ecosystem services like pollination, carbon sequestration, water purification, and
climate regulation.
• Genetic Diversity: They are hotspots for genetic diversity, which is vital for species adaptation and resilience.

Economic Importance
• Natural Resources: They offer a wealth of natural resources, including timber, medicinal plants, and other valuable commodities.
• Tourism: The unique biodiversity of these regions attracts tourists, generating revenue for local economies.
• Bioprospecting: They are a source of potential new drugs and other valuable products.

Cultural and Social Importance

• Indigenous Knowledge: Many of these regions are home to indigenous communities with deep cultural connections to the land and
its biodiversity.
• Spiritual Significance: These areas often hold spiritual significance for local communities and inspire cultural practices and beliefs.

Conservation Importance
• Priority Areas for Conservation: Due to their high biodiversity and threat levels, these hotspots are prioritized for conservation efforts.

• Indicator of Global Biodiversity Health: The health of these hotspots reflects the overall health of the planet's biodiversity.
Why are Biodiversity Hotspots important?
Biodiversity hotspots are critical for a healthy ecosystem.
Biodiversity is the foundation of all life on Earth. There would
be no air to breathe, no food to eat, and no water to drink if
there were no species. There would be no such thing as
human society. The coexistence of living and natural
resources is essential for the entire ecological life support
system.
 Endemism refers to the ecological state of a species being unique to a defined geographic location or habitat. In simpler
terms, it means that a particular plant or animal species can only be found in a specific area, such as an island, a mountain
range, a lake, or even a small region within a country.

 Key Points:
• Geographic Restriction: Endemic species are confined to a specific location and are not found naturally anywhere else.
• Ecological Importance: They play a crucial role in maintaining the balance of their unique ecosystems.
• Vulnerability: Due to their limited distribution, endemic species are often more susceptible to threats like habitat loss, climate
change, and human activities.

 Conservation of Endemic Species:

Protecting endemic species is vital for preserving biodiversity. Conservation efforts often focus on:

 Habitat Protection: Preserving the specific environments where these species thrive.
 Species-Specific Conservation: Implementing measures tailored to the needs of individual species, such as captive breeding
programs or reintroduction efforts.
 Education and Awareness: Raising awareness about the importance of endemic species and the threats they face
Endangered Species in India
 Bengal Tiger: A majestic predator, facing threats from poaching and habitat loss.
 Indian Rhino: A large herbivore, particularly vulnerable to poaching for its horn.
 Asiatic Lion: Found only in the Gir Forest, facing habitat fragmentation and human-wildlife conflict.
 Great Indian Bustard: A critically endangered bird, threatened by habitat loss and hunting.
 Gharial: A critically endangered crocodile, facing threats from habitat loss and pollution.
 Indian Wild Ass: Found in the Rann of Kutch, threatened by habitat degradation and human activities.

Endemic Species in India

 Nilgiri Tahr: A mountain goat found only in the Nilgiri Hills.
 Lion-tailed Macaque: A unique primate found in the Western Ghats.
 Nicobar Pigeon: A colorful pigeon found only in the Nicobar Islands.
 Pygmy Hog: The world's smallest pig, found only in Assam.
 Andaman Teal: A rare duck found only in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
 Kashmir Stag: A large deer species found only in the Kashmir Valley.
 Biodiversity, the variety of life on Earth, provides a multitude of benefits to humans. These benefits can be categorized into
two main types: consumptive and productive use.

 Consumptive Use of Biodiversity

Consumptive use involves the direct harvesting of biological resources for immediate consumption or local use. These resources
are not typically sold in formal markets. Some examples include:
• Food: Hunting, fishing, and gathering wild plants for food.
• Fuelwood: Gathering wood for cooking and heating.
• Medicinal Plants: Harvesting plants for traditional medicine.
• Building Materials: Using timber and other plant materials for construction.

 Productive Use of Biodiversity

Productive use involves the commercial exploitation of biological resources. These resources are harvested, processed, and sold in
markets. Some examples include:
• Timber: Harvesting trees for lumber and paper products.
• Fisheries: Commercial fishing for food and other products.
• Biotechnology: Using genetic resources from plants, animals, and microorganisms to develop new products and technologies.
• Ecotourism: Promoting tourism based on natural attractions and biodiversity.

 It's important to note that both consumptive and productive use of biodiversity must be sustainable. Overexploitation of
resources can lead to depletion, habitat destruction, and loss of biodiversity. Sustainable practices, such as responsible
harvesting, conservation efforts, and the promotion of alternative livelihoods, are crucial to ensure the long-term benefits of
biodiversity.
• Each species plays a role within the ecosystem it inhabits. Ecologists describe this role as a species’ ecological niche, or
simply its niche. It is a species’ way of life in a community and includes everything that affects its survival and reproduction,
such as how much water and sunlight it needs, how much space it requires, what it feeds on, what feeds on it, and the
temperatures and other conditions it can tolerate. A species’ niche should not be confused with its habitat, which is the
place, or type of ecosystem, in which it lives and obtains what it needs to survive. Ecologists use the niches of species to
classify them mostly as generalists or specialists.

• A generalist species such as th raccoon has a broad niche. Generalists can live in many different places, eat a variety of foods,
and often tolerate a wide range of environmental conditions. Other generalist species are cockroaches, rats, coyotes, and
white-tailed deer.

• In contrast, a specialist species, such as the giant panda, occupies a narrow niche Such species may be able to live in only one
type of habitat, eat only one or a few types of food, or tolerate a narrow range of environmental conditions. For example,
some shorebirds are specialized to feed on crustaceans, insects, or other organisms found on sandy beaches and their
adjoining coastal wetlands. Because of their narrow niches, specialists are more likely to become endangered or extinct when
environmental conditions change. For example, China’s giant pandais considered vulnerable because of a combination of
habitat loss, low birth rate, and its specialized diet consisting mainly of bamboo.

• Is it better to be a generalist or a specialist? It depends. When environmental conditions are constant, as in a tropical rain
forest, specialists have an advantage because they have fewer competitors. Under rapidly changing environmental
conditions, the more adaptable generalist usually is better off.
Indicator Species: Nature's Early Warning System
Indicator species are organisms whose presence, absence, or abundance reflects a specific environmental condition. They act as
a sort of biological canary in a coal mine, signaling changes in the health of an ecosystem.

Why are they important?

• Early Warning Signs: They provide early indications of environmental degradation, pollution, or climate change.
• Ecosystem Health Assessment: By monitoring indicator species, scientists can assess the overall health and balance of an
ecosystem.
• Targeted Conservation Efforts: They help focus conservation efforts on areas that are most at risk.

 How to Use Indicator Species

• Monitoring: Regular monitoring of indicator species populations and behaviors can reveal trends and potential threats.
• Baseline Data: Establishing baseline data on indicator species helps track changes over time.
• Citizen Science: Engaging the public in monitoring indicator species can increase awareness and data collection.
Common Examples of Indicator Species:

 Lichens:
• Sensitive to air pollution, especially sulfur dioxide.
• Their presence or absence can indicate air quality.

 Mayflies:
• Require clean, well-oxygenated water.
• Their presence in a water body suggests good water quality.

 Frogs and Toads:

• Sensitive to pollutants and habitat loss.
• Declining populations can signal broader environmental problems.

 Polar Bears:
• Top predators in the Arctic ecosystem.
• Their health and population size reflect the impacts of climate change on the Arctic.

 Coral Reefs:
• Sensitive to water temperature, acidity, and pollution.
• Coral bleaching events indicate stress on marine ecosystems.
• The term “keystone” is an architectural reference to a wedge-shaped stone at the top of an archway. It is the last stone
builders place in the arch to lock the other stones into position and enables the arch to bear a building’s weight. If the
keystone is removed, the arch—and possibly the entire building—could collapse.

• Similarly, a keystone species helps to keep an ecosystem together and functioning by shaping it in various ways, from being
apex predators to ecosystem engineers.
• A keystone species has a large effect on the types and abundance of other species in an ecosystem. Without the keystone
species, the ecosystem would be dramatically different or might collapse.

• Keystone species play several critical roles in helping to sustain ecosystems. One is the pollination of flowering plant species
by butterflies, honeybees, hummingbirds, bats, and other species. In addition, top predator keystone species feed on and
help regulate the populations of other species. Examples are wolves, leopards, lions, the American alligator, and some shark
species.

• The loss of a keystone species can lead to population crashes and extinctions of other species that depend on them for
certain ecosystem services. This is why it is so important for scientists to identify keystone species and work to protect them.

 A keystone species is an organism that plays a crucial role in maintaining the structure, stability, and diversity of an ecosystem.
While they might not be the most abundant species, their impact on the ecosystem is disproportionately large.

 Keystone species can be:

 Predators: They control populations of herbivores, preventing overgrazing and maintaining plant diversity.
 Ecosystem Engineers: They modify their environment, creating habitats for other species.
 Mutualists: They form symbiotic relationships with other species, benefiting both.
Characteristics of Keystone Species:
• Keystone species play a crucial role in maintaining the balance of their ecosystems. They have a disproportionately large
impact on their environment relative to their abundance. Here are some key characteristics of keystone species:

 Disproportionate Impact: They have a significant impact on the structure, function, and diversity of their ecosystem.
 Low Abundance: They are often not the most abundant species in the ecosystem.
 Unique Role: They have a unique ecological role that cannot be easily replaced by other species.
 Critical Role in Food Webs: They often occupy a pivotal position in food webs, influencing the populations of other species.
 Ecosystem Engineers: Some keystone species can modify their environment, creating habitats for other organisms.
 Sensitive to Disturbance: They are often vulnerable to disturbances, such as habitat loss, pollution, and climate change.

Examples of Keystone Species:

 Sea Otters: They prey on sea urchins, which can overgraze kelp forests. By controlling sea urchin populations, sea otters help
maintain healthy kelp forests.
 Wolves: As apex predators, wolves can influence the behavior of prey species, such as deer, which can affect vegetation and
other species.
 Bees: As pollinators, bees are crucial for the reproduction of many plant species.
 Elephants: Elephants can create waterholes and disperse seeds, shaping the African savanna ecosystem.
 They prey on sea urchins, which can decimate kelp forests.
 By controlling sea urchin populations, sea otters help maintain healthy kelp forests, providing habitat
and food for numerous other species.

 They build dams, creating ponds and wetlands that provide habitat for a variety of animals and
plants.
 Their dams also help to regulate water flow and prevent erosion.

 They play a crucial role in plant reproduction, ensuring the production of fruits, seeds, and nuts.
 Without pollinators, many plant species would decline, affecting the entire food chain.
  As apex predators, sharks help to maintain balance in marine ecosystems.
 They prey on sick and injured fish, keeping populations healthy.

 In tropical rainforests, fig trees provide food for a variety of animals, including birds, bats, and
monkeys.
 Their year-round fruit production helps to sustain these animals during times of scarcity.

 The Importance of Keystone Species:

 Ecosystem Stability: Keystone species help maintain the balance of ecosystems.
 Biodiversity: They contribute to biodiversity by creating and maintaining habitats for other species.
 Ecosystem Services: They provide essential ecosystem services, such as pollination, water filtration, and nutrient cycling.
Predators
• Predator species such as wolves, orcas and sea otters help maintain
the population sizes of prey species, and sometimes even other
predators, in an ecosystem. If a keystone predator is removed, other
species may explode in number, potentially outcompeting and
displacing other species. This is called a “top-down trophic cascade,”
and it can have a major long-term damaging effect on an ecosystem.

• Overharvesting of sea otters is a classic example of a top-down

trophic cascade. Sea otters were hunted for their soft fur, which
caused local extinctions throughout much of their range. Sea otters
feed on sea urchins, which feed on kelp. As the otters declined, sea
urchins rapidly increased and vastly overgrazed the ocean’s kelp
forests, destroying important habitat for a host of other species.

• Similarly, when wolves were systematically shot and trapped out of

existence in Yellowstone National Park, mountain elk populations
increased. These elk overgrazed vegetation growing along rivers,
which provided important shade, habitat and nutrients benefitting
river species such as beavers and fish. When wolves returned to
Yellowstone, a corresponding increase in aquatic species diversity
and a rise in trout numbers occurred.
Ecosystem Engineers

• Some keystone species physically

modify or maintain an
ecosystem. A prime example of
ecosystem engineers are
beavers, which dam rivers to
make pools and wetlands that
become habitats for a wide
diversity of species. These
wetlands also help moderate
environmental changes such as
flooding or drought. If beavers
are removed, rivers become
faster flowing, which often
reduces their diversity.

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https://www.animalsaroundtheglobe.com/meet-9-of-natures-engineers-that-reshape-their-ecosystems-1-272746/
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Prey

• Some keystone species are vital to an ecosystem

because of the critical role they play as a food source
for other species.

• For example, in Antarctica, shrimp-like krill are the

main prey for a host of polar species. In the Pacific
Northwest, salmon are likewise an important prey
species for animals from grizzly bears to orcas.

• On the plains of the central and western U.S., prairie

dogs are a food source for eagles, coyotes and the
endangered black-footed ferret. Prairie dogs also act
as ecosystem engineers because their burrows
provide shelter for other species such as burrowing
owls, and their tunnels help to aerate the soil. Where
prairie dogs have been lost, woody plants often
overtake and transform areas from grassland and
prairie ecosystems to woody shrub ecosystems.
Pollinators
• Pollinators are also considered keystone species.
Most people know how important bees are for
transferring pollen among plants. Roughly 90%
of the world’s plants are pollinated by bees,
including commercially and nutritionally
important fruit and vegetable crops. Every year,
one quarter to over half a trillion dollars of food
is produced thanks to the bees, wasps and flies
that pollinate them (more than $5 billion worth
in the U.S. alone).
• Many other species are also important
pollinators, including monarch butterflies and
numerous bat species. Despite this, many
pollinator populations are declining dramatically
as a result of pesticides and other agricultural
practices.
• Despite the importance of pollinators to
farmers, Big Agriculture has been lobbying
against the protection of bees and other
pollinators. Thankfully, Defenders and our allies
have been fighting to ensure that these
essential keystone species receive the
protection they need and deserve.
Habitat Providers
• Some keystone species are important
providers of shelter and habitats for
other species. Corals, for example,
provide many nooks and crannies for
coral reef species to hide. This habitat
complexity allows coral reefs to become
hotspots of ocean biodiversity.

• Sagebrush is another example. This

shrub not only provides food for species
such as the sage grouse, it also allows
many species to shelter underneath its
canopy to hide from predators.
Sagebrush also adds nutrients to the soil
and helps to retain moisture in the arid
regions where it is found.
Keystone species play a crucial role in maintaining the balance and health of ecosystems. Here's why they are important:

1. Biodiversity Maintenance:
• Regulating Populations: Keystone species often control the abundance of other species, preventing the dominance of a few
and promoting a more diverse community.
• Habitat Creation: Some keystone species modify their environment, creating habitats for other organisms. For example,
beavers build dams that create wetlands, supporting diverse life.

2. Ecosystem Stability:
• Food Web Balance: Keystone predators keep prey populations in check, preventing overgrazing and maintaining the balance
of the food web.
• Nutrient Cycling: Keystone species like decomposers and pollinators play vital roles in nutrient cycling, ensuring the health of
the ecosystem.

3. Resilience to Disturbances:
• Rapid Recovery: Healthy ecosystems with diverse keystone species are more resilient to disturbances like climate change or
natural disasters.
• Buffering Effects: Keystone species can help buffer the impact of environmental changes on other species.
Protecting Keystone Species: A Crucial Endeavor
Keystone species are the linchpins of ecosystems, playing disproportionately large roles in maintaining ecological balance. Protecting these
species is essential for the health and resilience of our planet. Here are some key strategies to safeguard keystone species:
1. Habitat Conservation and Restoration
 Protected Areas: Establish and maintain national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, and other protected areas to safeguard critical habitats.
 Habitat Restoration: Restore degraded habitats through replanting, removing invasive species, and controlling pollution.
 Corridor Creation: Create wildlife corridors to connect fragmented habitats, allowing for gene flow and migration.

2. Species-Specific Conservation
 Population Monitoring: Track population trends and identify threats to keystone species.
 Captive Breeding: Use captive breeding programs to increase populations of endangered species.
 Reintroduction: Reintroduce species to areas where they have been extirpated.
 Anti-Poaching Efforts: Implement strict anti-poaching measures to protect species from illegal hunting and trade.

3. Addressing Human-Wildlife Conflict

 Community-Based Conservation: Involve local communities in conservation efforts to reduce human-wildlife conflict.
 Non-lethal Deterrents: Use non-lethal methods to deter wildlife from damaging crops or property.
 Compensation Programs: Provide compensation to farmers and other affected individuals to mitigate losses.

4. Sustainable Practices
 Sustainable Agriculture: Promote sustainable farming practices that minimize environmental impact.
 Responsible Fishing: Implement sustainable fishing practices to protect marine ecosystems.
 Climate Change Mitigation: Reduce greenhouse gas emissions to mitigate climate change, which threatens many ecosystems.

5. Education and Awareness

 Public Awareness Campaigns: Raise public awareness about the importance of keystone species and the threats they face.
 Environmental Education: Incorporate environmental education into school curricula to inspire future generations of conservationists.
 Citizen Science: Engage citizens in data collection and monitoring efforts to contribute to conservation.
Edge Species:

 Habitat: Thrive in edge habitats, which are transitional zones between two different ecosystems (e.g., forest and grassland).
 Adaptation: Adapted to the unique conditions of edge habitats, often characterized by increased light, wind, and predation.
 Example: Many bird species, such as the Northern Cardinal, are edge species that thrive in forest edges
Ecotone Species: The Adaptable Inhabitants of Transition Zones
Ecotone species are organisms that thrive in ecotones, the transitional zones between two distinct ecosystems. These areas, like
the boundary between a forest and a grassland or a river and a lake, are characterized by unique environmental conditions and a
blend of species from both adjacent ecosystems.

Key Characteristics of Ecotone Species:

 Adaptability: They are highly adaptable to changing environmental conditions, such as fluctuations in temperature, humidity,
and nutrient availability.
 Tolerance: They can tolerate a wide range of environmental factors, including variations in soil type, water availability, and
light intensity.
 Generalist Diet: Many ecotone species have a diverse diet, allowing them to take advantage of the resources available in both
ecosystems.
 Specialized Niches: Some ecotone species have specialized niches, such as feeding on specific plants or preying on particular
animals, that allow them to coexist with other species.

Examples of Ecotone Species:

 Mangrove Forests: These coastal ecosystems are ecotones between marine and terrestrial environments. Mangrove trees,
with their specialized root systems, are well-adapted to both salty and freshwater conditions.
 Riverine Ecosystems: The transition zone between a river and its floodplain is an ecotone. Species like otters, herons, and
certain fish species thrive in this dynamic environment.
 Mountain Ecotones: As you ascend a mountain, you encounter different vegetation zones, each representing an ecotone. For
example, the transition between a coniferous forest and an alpine meadow is a distinct ecotone.
Key Characteristics of Keystone Species:
Keystone species are organisms that play a critical role in maintaining the balance of their ecosystem, disproportionate to their
abundance. Here are the key characteristics that define them:
1. Disproportionate Impact:
 Significant Influence: Keystone species have a significant impact on the structure, function, and diversity of their ecosystem.
 Low Abundance: Despite their low abundance, they have a disproportionately large effect.
2. Unique Niche:
 Specialized Role: They occupy a unique ecological niche, making them irreplaceable.
 No Functional Redundancy: No other species can easily fill their role.
3. Ecosystem Engineers:
 Habitat Modification: Some keystone species modify their environment, creating habitats for other organisms.
 Example: Beavers build dams, creating wetlands and altering the flow of water.
4. Predator-Prey Dynamics:
 Population Control: They regulate the populations of other species, preventing overpopulation and maintaining balance.
 Example: Wolves control the population of deer, which in turn affects plant life.
5. Pollination and Seed Dispersal:
 Essential Services: They play a crucial role in pollination and seed dispersal, ensuring the reproduction of plant species.
 Example: Bees and butterflies pollinate flowers, contributing to plant diversity.
6. Nutrient Cycling:
 Nutrient Flow: They facilitate nutrient cycling, ensuring the availability of essential nutrients for other organisms.
 Example: Decomposers break down organic matter, releasing nutrients back into the soil.
7. Sensitive to Disturbances:
 Vulnerable to Changes: They are often sensitive to changes in their environment, making them good indicators of ecosystem
health.
 Impact on Ecosystem: The decline or loss of a keystone species can have cascading effects on the entire ecosystem.
How Do New Species Arise?
Under certain circumstances, natural selection can lead to an entirely new species. Through this process, called speciation, one
species evolves into two or more different species.

• Geographic isolation occurs when different groups of the same population of a species become physically isolated from one
another for a long time. Part of a population may migrate in search of food and then begin living as a separate population in
an area with different environmental conditions. Winds and flowing water may carry a few individuals far away where they
establish a new population. A flooding stream, new road, a hurricane, earthquake, or volcanic eruption, and long-term
geological processes can also separate populations. The separated populations can develop quite different genetic
characteristics because they are no longer exchanging genes.

• In reproductive isolation, mutation and change by natural selection operate independently in the gene pools of geographically
isolated populations. If this process continues for a long enough time, members of isolated populations of sexually
reproducing species can become different in genetic makeup. Then they cannot produce live, fertile offspring if they are
rejoined and attempt to interbreed. When that happens, speciation occurs and one species becomes two.
The Central Valley in California prevents the two salamander populations from interacting with each other which is an example of
habitat isolation. After many generations the two salamander gene pools will become mutated caused by natural selection. The
mutation will change the DNA sequence of the two populations enough that the salamander populations can no longer
successfully breed between each other making the populations of salamander become classified as different species.
There are primarily four main types of speciation:
1. Allopatric Speciation:
 Geographic Isolation: Occurs when a population is physically separated by a geographic barrier like a mountain range, river, or
body of water.
 Genetic Divergence: Over time, the isolated populations accumulate genetic differences due to different selective pressures
and random genetic drift.
 Reproductive Isolation: Eventually, the genetic differences become so significant that the two populations can no longer
interbreed, leading to the formation of two distinct species.

2. Peripatric Speciation:
 Small Population Isolation: A small population becomes isolated at the edge of a larger population's range.
 Genetic Drift: The small population is more susceptible to genetic drift, leading to rapid genetic divergence.
 Reproductive Isolation: Over time, the small population evolves into a distinct species.

3. Parapatric Speciation:
 Partial Geographic Isolation: Populations are partially separated but still have some contact.
 Hybrid Zone: A hybrid zone may form where the two populations meet.
 Reproductive Isolation: If natural selection favors individuals that mate within their own population, reproductive isolation can
evolve.

4. Sympatric Speciation:
 No Geographic Isolation: Populations remain in the same geographic area.
 Reproductive Isolation: Reproductive barriers evolve within a single population, such as through genetic mutations, ecological
specialization, or behavioral differences.
 Genetic Divergence: The reproductively isolated populations diverge genetically, leading to the formation of new species.
The Earth Has Many Different Climates
• It is important to understand the difference between  Several factors help determine regional climates. They include:
weather and climate. Weather is a set of physical
conditions of the lower atmosphere that includes • Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
temperature, precipitation, humidity, wind speed,
cloud cover, and other factors that occur in a given • The cyclical movement of air in convection cells driven
area over a period of hours or days. The two most by solar energy.
important factors in an area’s weather are
atmospheric temperature and precipitation. • Uneven heating of the earth’s surface by the sun. Air
is heated much more at the equator, where the sun’s
• While weather is the set of short-term atmospheric rays strike directly, than at the poles where sunlight
conditions over hours to days to years, climate is the strikes at an angle and spreads out over a much greater
pattern of atmospheric conditions in a given area area. This helps explain why tropical regions near the
over periods ranging from at least three decades to equator are hot, polar regions are cold, and temperate
thousands of years. Weather often fluctuates daily, regions between these two areas have both warm and
from one season to another, and from one year to cool temperatures.
the next. However, climate tends to change slowly
because it is the average of long-term atmospheric • Patterns of global air circulation that distribute heat
conditions over at least 30 years. and precipitation unevenly between the tropics and
other parts of the world.
• The key factors that influence an area’s climate are
incoming solar energy, the earth’s rotation, global • Ocean currents that help distribute heatfrom the sun.
patterns of air and water movements, greenhouse
gases in the atmosphere, and the earth’s surface
features
Endangered and Threatened Species Are Ecological Smoke Alarms
• Biologists classify species that are heading toward biological extinction as either endangered or threatened. An endangered
species has so few individual survivors that the species could soon become extinct. A threatened species has enough
remaining individuals to survive in the short term, but because of declining numbers, it is likely to become endangered in the
near future. Some species have characteristics that increase their chances of becoming extinct.
 According to biologists, there are four
major reasons why we should prevent our
activities from causing or hastening the
extinction of other species.

• First, many people believe that wild

species, such as orangutans, have a right
to exist, regardless of their usefulness to
us.

• Second, the world’s species provide vital

ecosystem services that help keep us alive
and support our economies.

• Third, many species contribute to

economic services on which we depend.
Various plant species provide economic
value as sources of food, fuel, lumber,
paper, and medicines.

• A fourth major reason for not hastening

extinctions through our activities is that it
will take 5 to 10 million years for natural
speciation to replace the species we are
likely to be lost during this century.
Controlling Invasive Species Once a harmful nonnative species
becomes established in an ecosystem, removing it is almost
impossible. Americans pay more than $160 billion a year to eradicate
or control an increasing number of invasive species—without much
success. Thus, the best way to limit the harmful impacts of nonnative
species is to prevent them from being introduced into ecosystems.
Scientists suggest several ways to do this, including:

• Greatly increasing research to identify the characteristics of

successful invaders, the types of ecosystems vulnerable to invaders,
and the natural predators, parasites, bacteria, and viruses that could
be used to control populations of established invaders.

• Increasing ground surveys and drone satellite observations to track

invasive plant and animal species and developing better models for
predicting how they will spread and what harmful effects they could
have.

• Identifying major harmful invader species and establishing

international treaties banning their transfer from one country to
another, as is now done for endangered species, while stepping up
inspection of imported goods to enforce such bans.

• Educating the public about the effects of releasing exotic plants and
pets into the environment where they live.
Controlling Invasive Species
Invasive species pose a significant threat to biodiversity and ecosystems worldwide. Effective control strategies are essential to mitigate their
impact. Here are some common approaches:

1. Physical Control
• Manual Removal: Physically removing invasive plants by hand-pulling or digging.
• Mechanical Control: Using tools like shovels, saws, or weed whackers to remove or cut down invasive plants.
• Habitat Modification: Altering the habitat to make it less suitable for invasive species, such as flooding or drying out wetlands.

2. Chemical Control
• Herbicides: Applying herbicides to kill invasive plants.
• Selective Herbicides: Targeting specific invasive species while minimizing harm to native plants.

3. Biological Control
• Natural Enemies: Introducing natural enemies, such as predators, parasites, or diseases, to control invasive populations.
• Careful Selection: Rigorous testing is necessary to ensure that introduced biological control agents do not become invasive themselves.
•
4. Cultural Control
• Prevention: Implementing measures to prevent the introduction and spread of invasive species, such as inspecting imported goods and
regulating the trade of invasive plants and animals.
• Public Awareness: Educating the public about the dangers of invasive species and encouraging responsible practices, such as cleaning boats
and outdoor gear before transporting them to new locations.

Important Considerations:
 Integrated Pest Management (IPM): Combining multiple control methods to achieve the most effective and sustainable results.
 Monitoring and Evaluation: Continuously monitoring the impact of control measures and adjusting strategies as needed.
 Long-Term Commitment: Invasive species control is often a long-term process that requires sustained effort.
 Collaboration: Working with local, state, and federal agencies, as well as community organizations, to coordinate control efforts.
Major Threats to Biodiversity ;Biodiversity, the variety of life on Earth, is facing numerous threats due to human activities. Here are the primary
threats:

 Habitat Loss and Fragmentation:

• Deforestation: Clearing forests for agriculture, logging, and urbanization.
• Urbanization: Expanding cities and infrastructure.
• Land Conversion: Converting natural habitats for agriculture and other human activities.

 Overexploitation:
• Overfishing: Depleting fish populations.
• Overhunting: Hunting animals beyond sustainable levels.
• Overharvesting: Harvesting plants and other resources faster than they can regenerate.

 Pollution:
• Air Pollution: Acid rain, smog, and greenhouse gases.
• Water Pollution: Chemical and nutrient runoff, plastic pollution.
• Soil Pollution: Pesticides, fertilizers, and industrial waste.

 Climate Change:
• Rising Temperatures: Altering habitats and affecting species distribution.
• Extreme Weather Events: Increasing frequency and intensity of storms, droughts, and floods.
• Ocean Acidification: Threatening marine ecosystems.

 Invasive Species:
• Non-native Species: Outcompeting native species, disrupting ecosystems, and causing ecological imbalances.

 Disease:
• Emerging Diseases: Zoonotic diseases and diseases affecting wildlife populations.
1. Climate Change
 Climate change refers to the long term and irreversible change that occurs in the Earth’s climate. This increase in the
atmosphere’s temperature has major effects on the environment such as the seasons, rising sea levels, and glacial retreats.

• Organisms’ biodiversity is affected by their population, distribution, level of the ecosystem, and even the individuals’
morphology and function.
• Because of the increase in temperature, organisms have already adapted by expanding their ranges in latitudes. Because of
this behavior, many species’ populations have declined. Aside from this, many animals have exhibited changes in the
timings of their physiological functions. These include the birds and insects migrating and mating earlier than usual,
resulting in some failure in the breeding and production of young.
• Regarding ecosystems, studies revealed that climate change has expanded many desert ecosystems and thus affected the
function and services that the ecosystem can provide.

 For humans, the rapidly increasing rate of climate change imposes great threats to human security as natural resources are
becoming more and more limited. Global warming and climate change already have irreversible impacts on biodiversity.
And these effects, if not mitigated, can lead to more significant threats in the future.
2. Habitat Loss and Degradation
 Habitat loss refers to changes in the environment that result to the rendering of a specific habitat to be functionally valuable.
The habitat can no longer accommodate and support the life of the organisms present, thereby declining their population.

• Natural events like natural calamities, geological events, or anthropogenic activities like deforestation and man-induced
climate change may cause Habitat loss.
• In habitat degradation, the organisms that were once living in a particular area or region are displaced and forced to relocate;
thus resulting in biodiversity reduction.

 Indeed, man-made efforts are the prime reasons for habitat loss. Currently, clearing out ecosystems for agriculture conversion
and industrial expansion continues to displace organisms of their natural habitat. Other activities include logging and mining.
3. Pollution
 Be it water, air, or land pollution, all forms of pollution appear to be a threat to all life forms on Earth. However, it poses a
major threat to biodiversity regarding the nutrient loading of nitrogen and phosphorus elements.

• In Europe, atmospheric nitrogen is the only pollutant that has not decreased in concentration since the implementation of
legislation. Its mere presence poses huge challenges to the conservation measures intended to natural habitats and species
living there.
• Furthermore, nitrogen compounds in water systems can cause eutrophication (excessive plant and algal growth).
• The presence and accumulation of phosphorus in water systems can alter how food webs function. Excessive phosphorus, like
nitrogen, can result in the uncontrolled growth of planktonic algae; thus increasing organic matter deposition in the seabed.
• Another form of pollution that can damage and kill living organisms is acid rain. Acid rain, as its name suggests, is rain that is
composed of harmful acids (i.e., nitric and sulfuric acid). This rain is usually a result of pollution from the excessive burning of
fossil fuels.

 Some types of pollution, like the depletion of the ozone layer, can be reversible. However, this shall only happen when humans
stop or limit the use of various chemicals contributing to its destruction.
4. Invasive Species
 An exotic or unnatural species can be any organism that has been introduced to a foreign habitat. This introduction can cause
major threats to the native species as they often become subject to great competition for resources, disease, and predation.
When these species have successfully colonized the area, they are already called “invasive” ones.

• Next to habitat loss, invasive species are ranked as the second biggest threat to biodiversity.
• The greatest threat that invasive species can bring is their capability to change an entire habitat. These species are highly
adaptable and can easily dominate a certain area. Because many natural species survive only in a particular environment,
they tend to be displaced or perish.
• Some places have very low possibilities for species invasion. Usually, these places include those with harsh environmental
conditions like extreme temperatures and high salinity.

 Most exotic species are brought to a certain place to replace or add something to the vegetation. It is important to note that
not all introduced species become invasive. Most of these attempts have become successful.
When the brown tree snake was introduced to Guam (an island
in Pacific ocean), it wiped out 3/4th of the bird population by
eating their eggs and young birds from the nests. This is one of
the examples of invasive species by predation.

As Hawaiian and North American ducks share similar genetic

composition, they mate to create a new breed of ducks. This
causes a gradual reduction of Hawaiian ducks species. This is
an example of invasive species by hybridization.

In the early 1940s, North American beavers were introduced to

grow the fur industry in Argentina. The result was very
astounding. Beavers chewed down the native South American
tree roots and trunks which wiped out about 40 million acres of
pure forest area into plain lands.
5. Overexploitation
 Overexploitation refers to the act of overharvesting species and natural resources at rates faster than they can sustain
themselves in the wild. Because of this, the species population is put at great risk of reduction.

• Overharvesting, overfishing, and overhunting are some examples of overexploitation.

• Additionally, some living organisms find it hard to reproduce when their number is too small.
• So as a population or ecosystem continues to suffer from low species diversity, the probability of getting wiped out completely
when a natural disaster or other forces increase.

 If the act of overexploitation continues, it can ultimately bring extinction to many species, even if they still exist in the wild.
6. Other Potential Threats
 Aside from the five threats above, there are still a lot of drivers that may either directly or indirectly contribute to the loss of
biodiversity. One good example is wildlife epidemics and infectious diseases like Ebola, infectious bursal disease, and flu. This
phenomenon does not only affect wildlife but also human health as well.

• Aside from this, human-induced activities, including economic, technological, scientific, cultural, and demographic factors,
also impact biodiversity. The desiccation of wetlands and soils due to the excessive pumping of water tables often contributes
to the death of organisms living in these environments.
• Overusing natural parks and watersheds as tourist destinations and recreational spots also threaten biodiversity because
humans cause too much noise and perturbations that disrupt the animals’ normal activities.
 Protecting Species and Ecosystem
Services Raises Difficult Questions Efforts to prevent the extinction of wild species and the accompanying losses of ecosystem
services require the use of financial and human resources that are limited. This raises some challenging questions:

• Should we focus on protecting species or should we focus more on protecting ecosystems and the ecosystem services they
provide?

• How do we allocate limited resources between these two priorities?

• How do we decide which species should get the most attention in our efforts to protect as many species as possible? For
example, should we focus on protecting the most threatened species or on protecting keystone species?

• Protecting species that are appealing to humans, such as panda bears and orangutans, can increase public awareness of the
need for wildlife conservation. Is this more important than focusing on the ecological importance of species when deciding
which ones to protect?

• How do we determine which habitat areas are the most critical to protect?
Biodiversity conservation is the protection, preservation, management, or restoration of wildlife and natural resources such as
forests, water bodies, etc. It's essential to ensure the survival of many species and habitats threatened by human activities.

 Why is Biodiversity Conservation Important?

• Ecological Balance: Biodiversity maintains the delicate balance of ecosystems.
• Ecosystem Services: It provides essential services like pollination, oxygen production, and climate regulation.
• Economic Benefits: It contributes to industries like agriculture, forestry, and tourism.
• Medicinal Resources: Many medicines are derived from biodiversity.
• Cultural Significance: It's integral to many cultures and traditions.

 Challenges and Threats

• Habitat Loss and Fragmentation: Destruction of natural habitats.
• Overexploitation: Excessive harvesting of resources.
• Pollution: Contamination of air, water, and soil.
• Climate Change: Altering ecosystems and species distribution.
• Invasive Species: Introduction of non-native species.

 Individual Actions for Biodiversity Conservation:

• Reduce, reuse, and recycle.
• Conserve water and energy.
• Support sustainable products.
• Plant trees and create green spaces.
• Volunteer for conservation organizations.
• Spread awareness about biodiversity conservation.
Why is Biodiversity Conservation Important?
• Ecosystem Services: Biodiversity provides essential ecosystem services like pollination, climate regulation, water purification,
and soil fertility.
• Economic Benefits: Biodiversity underpins many industries, including agriculture, forestry, fisheries, and tourism.
• Ethical Responsibility: We have a moral obligation to protect the planet's biodiversity for future generations.

 Strategies for Biodiversity Conservation

In-situ Conservation:
• Protected Areas: Establishing national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, and biosphere reserves.
• Habitat Restoration: Restoring degraded habitats.
• Sustainable Use: Promoting sustainable practices like sustainable forestry and agriculture.

Ex-situ Conservation:
• Zoos and Botanical Gardens: Breeding endangered species in captivity.
• Seed Banks: Storing seeds of diverse plant species.
• Gene Banks: Preserving genetic material of various organisms.

 Challenges and Threats

 Habitat Loss and Fragmentation: Destruction of natural habitats due to human activities like deforestation, urbanization, and
agriculture.
 Overexploitation: Overharvesting of resources, such as overfishing and excessive logging.
 Pollution: Contamination of air, water, and soil, harming biodiversity.
 Climate Change: Altering ecosystems and affecting species distribution and behavior.
 Invasive Species: Introduction of non-native species that can outcompete and displace native species.
What is in-Situ Conservation of Biodiversity?
When we conserve and protect at all levels of biological organization, that is, the whole ecosystem, the approach is known as in-
situ conservation. In this, the conservation of species is protected within their natural habitat. In-situ conservation example can
be to save the tiger, we save the whole forest. The protected areas where in situ conservation takes place are; wildlife sanctuary,
national park, biosphere reserve, and sacred groves.

 Wild Life Sanctuary: Wildlife sanctuary is a protected area where wild animals and birds are conserved and protected in their
natural habitat. The capturing, killing, and poaching of animals are strictly prohibited. However, human activities like the
collection of firewood, etc. are allowed up to some extent. Wildlife sanctuaries can be created for particular species—for
example, Gir wildlife sanctuary to protect lions.

 National Park: The national park protects the entire plants, animals, and landscape of the region. Cultivation of land, forestry,
and grazing are not allowed at all. Human activities are strictly prohibited—for example, Corbett National Park.

 Biosphere Reserve:Biosphere Reserve is a large protected area for the conservation of wildlife, plant and animal resources,
and traditional tribal life in the area. It contributes to the protection and preservation of the natural ecosystem and culture of
the region. It may also contain other protected areas like wildlife sanctuaries or national parks. The Biosphere Reserve
example are Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve contains Satpura National Park and Bori and Pachmarhi Wildlife Sanctuary.

 Sacred Groves:Sacred grooves are tracts of forested land that are protected by the community living around them. The
community attaches some religious or cultural significance to the protected forest land. It helps protect many rare,
threatened, and endemic plant and animal species found in a region—for example, Khasi and Jantia hills in Meghalaya.
Advantages of In-situ Conservation
The advantages of the in-situ conservation approach are:
• The wildlife species are preserved within their natural habitat. They easily adjust and adapt to their surrounding.
• It conserves the entire ecosystem, not just one particular species.
• It is a more economical and convenient method.
• Useful in conserving large populations of a species
• The chances of recovery are high.

Disadvantages of In-situ Conservation

The disadvantages of the in-situ approaches are:
• Conditions that threaten the survival of the organism will still be present.
• The genetic diversity of the region may already have decreased.
• Endangered habitats may be fragmented and may affect the survival of the species.
What is Ex-situ Conservation of Biodiversity?
In ex-situ conservation, threatened animals and plants are taken out of their natural habitat and placed in a unique and ideal
setting,where they can be protected and given special care. Zoological parks, botanical gardens, gene banks, and
cryopreservation serve the above purpose.

 Zoological Park: A zoological park is a facility where animals are kept within enclosures for public display and are often bred
for conservation purposes. Zoological parks increase the public interest in the understanding of wildlife and are centers for
recreation and education like the National Zoological Park, Delhi.

 Botanical Gardens: A botanical garden is a garden specially meant for the collection, cultivation, preservation, and display of a
wide variety of plants, which are typically labeled with their botanical names. They serve the purpose of scientific research,
conservation, display, and education like the National Botanical Garden, Lucknow.

 Gene Bank: A gene bank is a biorepository that preserves the genetic material. It is a collection of seeds, plants, tissue
cultures, etc., of potentially valuable species. It conserves the genetic diversity of wild and domesticated plants and animals
like the National Animal Gene Bank, Karnal.

 Cryopreservation: Cryopreservation is the long-term process of keeping live cells, tissues, and other biological samples frozen
at sub-zero temperatures for storage and preservation. The sample is commonly kept at −196°C. It preserves the biological
material, and the genetic integrity of the material is stored like the one present in IARI, New Delhi.
Advantages of Ex-situ Conservation
The advantages of ex-situ conservation are:
• It protects endangered species from external threats like predation and poaching.
• Selective breeding programs can be implemented.
• It is a focused approach, as the health of individual animals can be monitored.
• The genetic diversity of the population is preserved.
• It is invaluable for research and public education.
• It has the potential to reintroduce organisms back into their natural habitat.

Disadvantages of Ex-situ Conservation

• The individual is living outside its natural habitat.
• Animals may not adjust to the new environment.
• Captive animal populations have limited genetic diversity.
• It is expensive to maintain.
• Animals may not survive reintroduction into the wild.
There are two primary strategies for conserving biodiversity: in-situ and ex-situ conservation.

In-Situ Conservation: In-situ conservation involves the conservation of species and genetic diversity in their natural habitats. This method
emphasizes the preservation of entire ecosystems and their natural processes. Examples of in-situ conservation include:
• National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries: Protected areas where human activities are restricted to minimize disturbance to wildlife.
• Biosphere Reserves: Large areas of terrestrial and coastal ecosystems that are internationally recognized for their biological and cultural
significance.
• Community Reserves: Locally managed protected areas that involve local communities in conservation efforts.

 Advantages of In-Situ Conservation:

• Conserves entire ecosystems and their ecological processes.
• Preserves genetic diversity.
• Provides opportunities for scientific research and education.
• Often more cost-effective than ex-situ conservation.

Ex-Situ Conservation: Ex-situ conservation involves the conservation of species and genetic diversity outside their natural habitats. This method is
often used for endangered species or those that cannot be adequately protected in their natural habitats. Examples of ex-situ conservation
include:
• Zoos and Aquariums: Institutions that house animals for public display and conservation purposes.
• Botanical Gardens: Institutions that cultivate and conserve plant species.
• Seed Banks: Facilities that store seeds for long-term preservation.
• Gene Banks: Facilities that store genetic material, such as DNA, sperm, and eggs.

 Advantages of Ex-Situ Conservation:

• Provides a controlled environment for breeding and rearing endangered species.
• Allows for genetic research and breeding programs.
• Can be used to reintroduce species into the wild.
Poaching: A Grave Threat to Biodiversity
Poaching, the illegal hunting, trapping, or fishing of wildlife, is a serious threat to biodiversity worldwide. It can have devastating
consequences for individual species and entire ecosystems.

Key Impacts of Poaching:

Population Decline:
• Direct Threat: Poaching directly reduces the number of individuals in a population.
• Genetic Diversity Loss: Small populations are more vulnerable to genetic drift and inbreeding, further compromising their
long-term survival.

Ecosystem Imbalance:
• Disrupted Food Chains: Removing key species can disrupt the delicate balance of food chains and lead to cascading effects.
• Habitat Degradation: Poaching can lead to habitat degradation as animals are forced to change their behavior or migrate to
new areas.

Economic Loss:
• Tourism Industry: Poaching can negatively impact the tourism industry, as fewer people will visit areas where wildlife is scarce
or extinct.
• Local Communities: Communities that rely on wildlife-based tourism or subsistence hunting can suffer economic hardship.

Illegal Wildlife Trade:

• Organized Crime: Poaching is often linked to organized crime syndicates, fueling corruption and instability.
• Market Demand: The demand for wildlife products, such as ivory, rhino horn, and tiger bones, drives the illegal wildlife trade.
Combating Poaching:
To address the issue of poaching, a multi-faceted approach is necessary:
• Strengthening Law Enforcement: Increasing patrols, improving intelligence gathering, and imposing stricter penalties on
poachers.
• Community Engagement: Empowering local communities to protect wildlife and providing alternative livelihoods.
• International Cooperation: Collaborating with other countries to combat transnational wildlife crime.
• Consumer Awareness: Educating consumers about the negative impacts of buying wildlife products.
• Technological Solutions: Using technology such as drones and satellite imagery to monitor wildlife and detect poaching
activities.

To combat poaching, consider the following strategies:

 Raise awareness: Educate the public about the impact of poaching.
 Strengthen legislation and law enforcement: Enforce wildlife protection laws.
 Support local communities: Engage them in conservation efforts.
 Promote responsible tourism: Encourage ethical wildlife viewing.
 Enhance conservation efforts: Protect natural habitats.
 Strengthen border control and customs: Prevent illegal wildlife trade.
 Disrupt the supply chain: Target poaching networks.
 Foster international cooperation: Collaborate across borders.
The long-term survival of some of the world’s most iconic species, including elephants and tigers, is at risk from a significant and
escalating threat: human-wildlife conflict. Human-wildlife conflict is when encounters between humans and wildlife lead to
negative results, such as loss of property, livelihoods, and even life. Defensive and retaliatory killing may eventually drive these
species to extinction. These encounters not only result in suffering for both people and wildlife immediately impacted by the
conflict; they can also have a global reach, with groups such as sustainable development agencies and businesses feeling its
residual effects. The scope of the issue is significant and truly global, but we are nowhere near being able to address it at the
scale needed.
What is man-animal conflict?
• Human-wildlife conflict refers to the unfriendly situation between people and animals, resulting in undesirable effects not
only for animals but also for humans. For example, crop loss, livestock predation, injury, or death, as well as the killing of
wildlife, can be some of the aftermath.
• Such conflicts occur when human activities expand into the habitat of animals and the human population increases and starts
to come into contact with wildlife in these dominated areas.
• The man-animal conflict has profound consequences not only on the immediate wildlife but also on the entire ecosystem and
socio-economic systems of the affected areas.
• Human lives and livelihoods are often impacted by such conflicts. People suffer emotional trauma due to fatalities and
injuries. In addition, farmers who have experienced livestock predation lose an opportunity to feed their families. Rural and
agricultural communities struggle to stay in business due to crop depredation.
High rate of conflicts across India
Several states in India have witnessed a significant increase in man-animal conflict, including:

• Uttarakhand reported 700 cases in the year 2022 alone. The state has been put on high alert after three people died and 15
were injured due to man-animal conflict at the start of 2024.
• Himachal Pradesh has also witnessed a sharp rise in the cases of man-animal conflict. There were 34 cases of deaths due to
leopard attacks, and 367 cases of injury, of which 99 cases were of grievous injury.
• Karnataka is witnessing an intense social movement on the issue of man-animal conflict. 92 human lives were lost and 126
animals died in the year 2022 alone, as reported by the state’s forest department. The close proximity of urban areas with
national parks and reserves coupled with rapid urbanization is making the problem worse.
• Kerala, in 2022, witnessed 58 human and 117 animal deaths due to conflict situations. The problem is worsening due to
growing urbanization, decreasing animal habitats, overcrowding, and climate change impacts.
Wild animals can attack humans and such attacks can be broadly classified as – territorial, defensive or predatory.

 Territorial attack – When wild animals attack other animals or humans that invade or trespass their territory

 Defensive attack – When a wild animal perceives danger from a human and attacks him/her in order to protect itself

 Predatory attack – When a wild animal attacks humans as a prey for food. This is usually seen among tigers that become too
old or injured and hence, cannot prey on other animals that are too fast or too swift for it. Thus, they begin to prey on
humans, which are easier to hunt than other animals. Such tigers are termed as ‘man-eaters’.
CAUSES OF HUMAN-WILDLIFE CONFLICT –

1. Increase in Human population-The expansion of urban and rural parts, also increase in requirements of people as a result of increasing population has
led to many settlements coming up near the peripheries of protected areas, encroaching the forest areas and using it for their own benefit. Moreover, land
is also required for agricultural and horticultural purposes. This is first and most important cause giving rise to conflict between man and wildlife.

2. Encroachment of forest lands –An increase in human population obviously leads to increase in the requirements of the population. The construction of
hydroelectric power plants as well clearing for forests for mining and industries also contributes to encroachment of forest areas. Such human activities
can fragment large animal habitats into smaller patches, threatening their existence and increasing their conflict with the humans.

3. Livestock grazing –Livestock grazing owned by humans in forest areas can affect wildlife in multiple ways. Firstly, the livestock compete with the wild
herbivores for palatable plant species and water, thus creating a scarcity for the indigenous herbivore population. Secondly, livestock mainly feed on the
young saplings, affecting the regeneration of plant and tree species. Moreover, the presence of livestock attracts the carnivores, thus exposing them to
retaliatory trapping and killing by humans so as to protect the livestock. Lastly, an increased contact between livestock and wildlife can aid in the spread of
communicable diseases from domestic to wild animals and vice versa. Scientific studies in the Bandipur Tiger Reserve indicate that the population of wild
ungulates declines in areas where the grazing pressures are high. Over grazing also harms the environment indirectly by increasing the rate of soil erosion.

4. Road kills –With increase in industrial development, road construction has increased exponentially. The traffic density in India is estimated to increase
at the rate of ten percent annually. Some of the roads developed to handle this traffic pass through forest areas. Apart from fragmenting the natural
habitat of the wildlife, driving at high speed combined with poor eyesight or poor reflexes on the part of the animal contribute to a high incidence of road
accidents. The common victims of such accidents are the nocturnal animals such as mouse deer, civet cats, black-naped hares, leopards and sambars.
There have been several reports of tigers, elephant calves or elephants, chitals, dholes, sloth bears, wolves, blackbucks and other large mammals killed in
numerous road accidents.

Death of an animal in a road accident may indirectly impact the ecosystem immensely. Death of herbivores may deplete the carnivorous animals of food.
Death of a female tiger may starve her cubs. Thus, various precautionary measures, as discussed later, need to be implemented to reduce the incidence of
such road accidents.
Factors contributing to the rise in man-animal conflicts
• Rapid industrialization and urban development have caused the habitats’ fragmentation and destruction, causing animals to
enter into human settlements in search of resources like food, water and shelter. The ever-expanding human activities have
now started to interfere with the natural habitats of animals leading to increased invasion and chances of conflict.
• The delicate balance that exists between humans and animals in the world has further been disrupted by climate change and
environmental degradation, making the conflict even more overwhelming. These negative interactions have been fuelled by
changing weather patterns, reduction in natural resources and alterations in animal migration routes.
• Ineffective application of laws and policies concerning wildlife conservation and habitat preservation is also a reason behind
rising man-animal conflict cases across the country. Weak enforcement, insufficient funds and poor collaboration among
stakeholders have created hindrances in the effective management of conflicts.
• Additionally, the growing human population and the corresponding demand for land and resources have put pressure on
wildlife habitats, leading to increased encounters between humans and animals.
EFFECTS OF CONFLICTS

 Mortality and injuries to human beings

 Mortality and injuries to endangered or threatened animals Loss of livestock
 Crop damage
 Loss of property (Buildings, vehicles, equipments etc.)
POSSIBLE REMEDIES

The solution to human wildlife conflict cannot be carried out at an individual level; it necessitates the co-operation and co-
ordination between different stakeholders and co-ordinated and regulated measures that should be implemented on a large
scale.

1. Improvement of habitat – The Ministry of Environment should shoulder the responsibility of improving the natural habitats for
the wild animals. Studies should be conducted to indentify the ideal or the best possible habitat for a particular animal and its
living in that particular habitat should be encouraged. For instance, a recently conducted study has identified the Palamau region
in Jharkhand, India as a suitable habitat for the Asian elephants. The availability of food and water in these natural habitats
should be augmented so that the animal excursion into human settlements can be reduced.

2. Barriers between humans and wildlife – Physical barriers such as boundary walls, solar fences or trenches can be constructed
to minimize animal movements into human settlements. Regulations should be in place to restrict the human habitation and
farmlands to within a certain area of forest lands so that direct contact between man and wildlife can be avoided as much as
possible.
3. Training programmes – The forest officers, police and the local population needs to be trained to avoid human-wildlife conflict.
They should realize the importance of not extending their settlements or agricultural land deep into the forests and should avoid
over grazing of livestock in the forest areas. Moreover, they should also be trained to avoid animal excursions into their hands in
a way that least harms the wild animal, or in other words, avoidance of retaliatory killing or injuring the animal. Local co-
operation is imperative to reduce the incidence of human-wildlife conflict. A list of ‘Do’s’and ‘Don’ts’from the Ministry shall be
helpful with strict punishments to deter any violations of these regulations.

4. Technical support – Infrastructure and necessary medical facilities should be provided in case any wild animal or human gets
injured in case of a conflict. Hospitals should be established, both human and veterinary to attend to these. Measures should
also be taken to rehabilitate the injured animals in rescue centres and release them back into their natural habitats.

5. Regulations for traffic-Construction of roads within forests or natural habitats for wild animals should be avoided as much as
possible. If any such road is constructed, measures should be adopted to their save movement by constructing natural corridors.
Speed regulations should be imposed for drivers driving through the forest roads, especially during night time and violators
should be strictly punished. Speed calming measures such as speed breakers, road humps, rumble strips or chicanes can also be
constructed at appropriate locations.
 Reducing Animal-Human Conflict
Animal-human conflict can be a serious issue, leading to injuries, property damage, and loss of life for both humans and wildlife. Here are some
strategies to mitigate this:
Habitat Conservation and Restoration
• Protected Areas: Establishing and maintaining protected areas can help preserve wildlife habitats and reduce human-wildlife encounters.
• Habitat Corridors: Creating corridors between protected areas can allow wildlife to move safely and reduce their need to enter human
settlements.
• Habitat Restoration: Restoring degraded habitats can provide suitable environments for wildlife and reduce their reliance on human-
dominated areas.
Community Engagement and Education
• Awareness Programs: Educating local communities about wildlife behavior, ecology, and the importance of coexistence can help reduce fear
and misconceptions.
• Community-Based Conservation: Involving local communities in conservation efforts can foster a sense of ownership and promote sustainable
practices.
• Livelihood Alternatives: Providing alternative livelihood options, such as ecotourism or sustainable agriculture, can reduce people's reliance on
natural resources and decrease their conflict with wildlife.
Wildlife Management Techniques
• Non-lethal Deterrents: Using non-lethal methods like noise deterrents, electric fences, or aversive conditioning can discourage wildlife from
entering human settlements.
• Translocation: Relocating problem animals to suitable habitats can reduce conflict in specific areas.
• Sterilization: Sterilizing problem animals can help control population growth and reduce conflict.
Policy and Legislation
• Strong Wildlife Protection Laws: Enforcing strict laws against poaching, illegal wildlife trade, and habitat destruction can help protect wildlife
and their habitats.
• Compensation Programs: Providing compensation to farmers and other affected communities can help reduce economic losses and encourage
coexistence.
• Incentive Programs: Implementing incentive programs for farmers to adopt wildlife-friendly practices can promote sustainable land use.