Electromagnetism

Contents

• Review of Maxwell’s equations and Lorentz Force Law

• Motion of a charged particle under constant Electromagnetic fields
• Relativistic transformations of fields
• Electromagnetic energy conservation
• Electromagnetic waves
– Waves in vacuo
– Waves in conducting medium
• Waves in a uniform conducting guide
– Simple example TE01 mode
– Propagation constant, cut-off frequency
– Group velocity, phase velocity
– Illustrations

2
 Reading
• J.D. Jackson: Classical Electrodynamics
• H.D. Young and R.A. Freedman: University Physics (with
Modern Physics)
• P.C. Clemmow: Electromagnetic Theory
• Feynmann Lectures on Physics
• W.K.H. Panofsky and M.N. Phillips: Classical Electricity
and Magnetism
• G.L. Pollack and D.R. Stump: Electromagnetism

3
Basic Equations from Vector Calculus
For a scalar function φx,y,z,t ,
 φ φ φ  Gradient is normal to
gradient : φ  , , 
 x y z  surfaces =constant


For a vector F F1 , F2 , F3 ,
 F F F
divergence : F  1  2  3
x y z
  F F F F F F 
curl :   F  3  2 , 1  3 , 2  1 
 y z z x x y 

4
 Basic Vector Calculus
     
( F  G ) G   F  F   G

   0,   F 0
  2

  (  F ) (F )   F

Stokes’ Divergence or Gauss’

 
Theorem   Theorem

  F dS F d r   
S
 
C

n

V
F dV 
F dS
S
dS n dS
Closed surface S, volume
Oriented V, outward pointing normal
boundary C
5
 What is Electromagnetism?
• The study of Maxwell’s equations, devised in 1863 to represent
the relationships between electric and magnetic fields in the
presence of electric charges and currents, whether steady or
rapidly fluctuating, in a vacuum or in matter.

• The equations represent one of the most elegant and concise

way to describe the fundamentals of electricity and magnetism.
They pull together in a consistent way earlier results known from
the work of Gauss, Faraday, Ampère, Biot, Savart and others.

• Remarkably, Maxwell’s equations are perfectly consistent with

the transformations of special relativity.
 Maxwell’s Equations
Relate Electric and Magnetic fields generated by charge
and current distributions.

E = electric field

D = electric displacement  D 
H = magnetic field 
 B 0
B = magnetic flux density 
= charge density  B
  E 
j = current density t

0 (permeability of free space) = 4 10-7   D
0 (permittivity of free space) = 8.854 10-12  H  j 
t
c (speed of light) = 2.99792458 108 m/s
   
In vacuum D  0 E , B  0 H ,  0  0 c 2 1
  
E  Maxwell’s 1st Equation
0
Equivalent to Gauss’ Flux Theorem:
     1 Q
E 
0
 
V
E dV 
E d S 
S
0 
V
 dV 
 0

The flux of electric field out of a closed region is proportional to

the total electric charge Q enclosed within the surface.
A point charge q generates an electric field
 q 
E r
4 0 r 3
  q dS q
 E
sphere
d S 
4 0 
sphere
r 2

0
Area integral gives a measure of the net charge
enclosed; divergence of the electric field gives the density
8
of the sources.
 
B 0 Maxwell’s 2nd Equation

Gauss’ law for magnetism:

  
B 0  B dS 0
The net magnetic flux out of any
closed surface is zero. Surround a
magnetic dipole with a closed
surface. The magnetic flux directed
inward towards the south pole will
equal the flux outward from the north
pole.
If there were a magnetic monopole
source, this would give a non-zero
integral.
Gauss’ law for magnetism is then a statement
that There are no magnetic monopoles
 
 B
  E  Maxwell’s 3rd Equation
t
Equivalent to Faraday’s Law
 of
Induction:   B 


S
E dS   dS
S
t
 d   d
 
C
E d l  
dt 
S
B d S 
dt
N S
(for a fixed circuit C)
 
 E dl force round a
The electromotive
circuit is proportional to the
 
rate of 
 change
B dSof flux of magnetic field,
through the circuit.
Faraday’s Law is the basis for
electric generators. It also forms the
basis for inductors and
 
  1 E
  B  0 j  2 Maxwell’s 4th Equation
c t
 
Originates from Ampère’s (Circuital) Law :   B  0 j
     
B dl 
C
  B dS  0 
S
j dS  0 I
S

Ampère Satisfied by the field for a steady line current (Biot-Savart

Law, 1820):  
 0 I dl  r
B
4  r3
0 I
For a straight line current B 
2 r
Biot
 Need for Displacement
Current

• Faraday: vary B-field, generate E-field

• Maxwell: varying E-field should then produce a B-field, but not covered by Ampère’s
Law.

Apply Ampère to surface 1 (flat disk): line
integral of B = 0I
Surface 1 Surface 2

Applied to surface 2, line integral is zero
since no current penetrates the deformed
surface.
Current I Q dQ dE

In capacitor, E  , so I   0 A
ε0 A dt dt

Closed loop  E

Displacement current density isjd  0
 t
    E
  B  0  j  j d   0 j   0 0
t 12
 Consistency with Charge
Conservation

Charge conservation: From Maxwell’s equations:

Total current flowing out of a region
equals the rate of decrease of charge Take divergence of (modified)
within the volume. Ampère’s equation
 1  
  d   B  0j  2 E
c t
 
j dS 
dt 
 dV
 
   0  0j   0  0  
 
j dV   dV
t
t   0 
   
 j  0  0 j 
t t

Charge conservation is implicit in Maxwell’s Equations

13
 Maxwell’s
Equations in Vacuum

In vacuum Equivalent integral forms

    1
D  0 E , B  0 H ,  0  0  2
c (useful for simple geometries)
  1
Source-free equations:
 E dS  0 
 dV
B 0  

 B
 E  0 B dS 0
t   d   d
equations

E dl  dt B dS  dt
Source
E 
0     1 d  
 1 E


B dl 0 j dS  c 2 dt E dS
 B  2  0 j
c t
14
 Example: Calculate E from B
  d 
z E dl  dt 
B dS

d
r  r0 2 rE   r 2 B0 sin  t   r 2 B0 cos  t
dt
r 1
 E  B0 r cos  t
2
 B sin  t r  r0
Bz  0
 0 r  r0 d
r  r0 2 rE   r02 B0 sin  t   r02 B0 cos  t
 dt
 B  r02 B0
Also from   E   E  cos  t
t 2r

  1 E then gives current density necessary
  B  0 j  2
c dt to sustain the fields
 Lorentz Force Law
• Supplement to Maxwell’s equations, gives force on a charged particle
moving in an electromagnetic field:
   

f q E  v  B 
• For continuous distributions, have a force density
   
f d  E  j  B
• Relativistic equation of motion
   
dP  v f  1 dE dp 
– 4-vector form: F    , 
f    , 
d  c   c dt dt 
– 3-vector component:
    
d
dt

m0v   f q E  v  B 
16
 Motion of charged particles in constant
magnetic fields
       
d
dt
 
m0 v   f q E  v  B 
d
dt
 
m0 v  q v  B
1. Dot product with v:
 d  q   
v   v   v v  B 0
dt m0 No acceleration
2  d  d with a magnetic
But γv  c 2  2  1  v  v   field
dt dt
d 
So 0   is constant  v is constant
dt

2. Dot product with B:

 d  q   
B   v   B v  B 0
dt m0
d  
 
dt

B v 0, v// constant
17
 Motion in constant magnetic field

dv q  
 v B
dt m0 Constant magnetic field
v2 q gives uniform spiral about
  v B B with constant energy.
 m0
m0v
 circular motion with radius ρ
qB
v qB
at angular frequency ω  m m0 
 m
m0 v p
B  
q q
Magnetic rigidity
 Motion in constant Electric Field
      
d
dt

m0 v   f q E  v  B  d

dt
m0 v  q E
d  q 
Solution of  v   E
dt m0
2 2
qE  v   qE 
is v  t   2 1       1   t 
m0  c  m0 
 2 
dx v m0c 2
 qEt 
  x 1     1
dt  qE   m0c  
 
1 qE 2
 t for qE  m0c
2 m0
Energy gain is qEx

Constant E-field gives uniform acceleration in straight line 19

 Potentials
• Magnetic vector potential:
   
B 0   A such that B   A
• Electric scalar potential:
  
   A 
  E 
B
t


t
 
  A  
A
t
    E   0
t 

 
 A  A
  with E    , so E   
t t
 
• Lorentz Gauge:     f(t), A  A  
1  
Use freedom to set
2
 A 0
c t
20
 Electromagnetic 4-Vectors
Lorentz 1   1    1 
2
 A 0  ,    , A  4 Α
Gauge c t  c t  c 
4-gradient 4-potential A
4  
Current j  v
 
4-vector  J  0V  0 ( c, v ) ( c, j ) where   0

1    
Continuity
equation
4 J 

 
,   c , j   j 0
 c t  t

 v jx 
Charge-current jx   jx   v ,       2 
transformations  c  21
Example: Electromagnetic Field of a Single Particle

• Charged particle moving along x-axis of Frame F

Frame F v Frame F’
z z’
Observer P Origins coincide
b at t=t=0

x charge q x’

• P has 0  xP  ( xP  vt ) so xP  vt 

   vx p 
x ' P (  vt ' ,0, b), so x p r '  b  v t ' , t '   t  2   t
2 2 2

 c 
• In F, fields are only electrostatic (B=0), given by
 q  qvt ' qb
E '  3 x 'P  E ' x  3 , E ' y 0, E ' z  3
r' r' r'
 Electromagnetic Energy
• Rate of doing work on unit volume of a system is
        

 
 v f d  v   E  j  B   v E  j E
• Substitute for j from Maxwell’s equations and re-arrange into the form

 
    D        D
 j E     H   E E  H  H   E  E 
 t  t
 
 B  D   
S  H   E  where S  E  H
t t
1     
S 
2 t

E D  B H 
Poynting vector

23
    1       
 
 j E   B H  E D     E  H
t  2
 

Integrated over a volume, have energy conservation law:
rate of doing work on system equals rate of increase of
stored electromagnetic energy+ rate of energy flow across
boundary.

1       
dW
dt
d

 E D  B H dV  
dt 2

E  H dS

electric + Poynting vector

magnetic energy gives flux of e/m
densities of the energy across
fields boundaries
24
 Review of Waves
2u 1 2u
• 1D wave equation is 2
with
2
general
2
solution x v t
u( x, t )  f ( vt  x )  g ( vt  x )
• Simple plane wave:
 
1D : sin t  k x  
3D : sin  t  k x 
2
Wavelength is   
k

Frequency is 
2
 Phase and group velocities


i  ( k ) t  kx 
A

( k ) e dk

Superposition of plane waves. While

Plane wave sin  t  k x  has shape is relatively undistorted, pulse
 t phase
constant  k x  2 at travels with the group velocity
peaks
t  kx 0 d
vg 
dk
x 
 vp  
t k
 Wave packet structure

• Phase velocities of individual plane waves making up

the wave packet are different,
• The wave packet will then disperse with time

27
 Electromagnetic waves
• Maxwell’s equations predict the existence of electromagnetic waves, later
discovered by Hertz.
 
• No charges, no currents:  D  B
 H    E 
 t t
  

    E   
B
t
D 0 B 0

   



 B    

2
    E  E   E 
t
2
 2
 2
 E
 D  E
  2  
t t 2 3D wave equation :
   
 2 2
 E  E  E 2 2
 E
 E  2  2  2  2
2

x y z t
 Nature of Electromagnetic Waves
• A general plane wave with angular frequency  travelling in the direction
of the wave vector k has the form
       
E E0 exp[i ( t  k x )] B B0 exp[i ( t  k x )]
 
• Phase  t  k=2
x  number of waves and so is a Lorentz invariant.
• Apply Maxwell’s equations

      
   ik E 0 B  k E 0 k B
  
   
 i   E  B  k  E  B
t


Waves aretransverse
 to the direction of propagation,
k and E , B and are mutually perpendicular
 Plane
Electromagnetic Wave

30
 Plane Electromagnetic Waves

 1 E    
 B  2  k  B  2 E
c t c
  
Combined with k  E  B

E  kc 2 
deduce that     speed of wave in vacuum is  c
B k  k
 
Reminder: The fact that  t  k x is an
2 invariant tells us that
Wavelength   
k   
  , k 
 c 
Frequency   is a Lorentz 4-vector, the 4-Frequency vector.
2 Deduce frequency transforms as
 
 
     v k 
c v
c v
 Waves in a Conducting Medium
       
E  E0 exp[i ( t  k x )] B  B0 exp[i ( t  k x )]
 
• (Ohm’s Law) For a medium of conductivity , j  E
 
  E  E
 H  j    E  
t t
• Modified Maxwell:    
 ik  H  E  i E

D
 conduction displacement
current
current
Dissipation
• Put
factor
Copper :  5.8 107 ,   0  D 1012
Teflon :  3 10-8 ,  2.1 0  D 2.57 10  4
 Attenuation in a Good Conductor
   
 i k  H  E i E

 B   
Combine with   E   k  E   H
t
     
 
 k  k  E   k  H     i   E
   
 
 k E k  k 2 E     i   E
 
 k 2    i    since k E 0

 
For a good conductor D >> 1,    , k 2  i   k 1  i 
2
  x   x 1
Wave form is exp  i   t    exp   , k  1  i  copper.mov water.mov
      
2
where   is the skin - depth
 
 Charge Density in a Conducting Material
 
• Inside a conductor (Ohm’s law) j  E
• Continuity equation is
 
 j 0
t
   
   E 0   
t t 
 t 
• Solution is  0e
So charge density decays exponentially with time. For a very
good conductor, charges flow instantly to the surface to form a
surface charge density and (for time varying fields) a surface
current. Inside a perfect conductor () E=H=0
 Maxwell’s Equations in a Uniform Perfectly
Conducting Guide
Hollow metallic cylinder with perfectly
z conducting boundary surfaces
Maxwell’s equations with time dependence exp(it) are:
   
x

  E 
B
 i  H
 2
 
 E  E      E

 
t
  i    H
 D  
 H  i E    E
2
t
                        
 
 E 
 2 2

y 
        0

  H 
  
 
Assume E ( x, y , z, t )  E ( x, y )e( i t   z ) 
  E 
H ( x, y , z, t ) H ( x, y )e( i t   z )  
Then t2  ( 2   2 )    0
H 
 is the propagation constant
Can solve for the fields completely
in terms of Ez and Hz
 Special cases
• Transverse magnetic (TM modes):
– Hz=0 everywhere, Ez=0 on cylindrical boundary

• Transverse electric (TE modes):

H z
– Ez=0 everywhere, on
0 cylindrical boundary
n

• Transverse electromagnetic (TEM modes):

– Ez=Hz=0 everywhere
– requires 2
    0 or  i 
2

36
 Cut-off frequency, c
2
n  nx i t   z n
 1    , E  A sin e , c 
a  c  a a 
 c gives real solution for , so
attenuation only. No wave propagates: cut-
off modes.
 c gives purely imaginary solution for ,
and a wave propagates without attenuation.
1
  2 2
 ik , k      
1
2 2
c
2
   1 c

  
2

 For a given frequency  only a finite number

of modes can propagate.
n a
  c   n  For given frequency, convenient to
a   choose a s.t. only n=1 mode
occurs.
37
 Propagated Electromagnetic Fields

 B
From   E  , assuming A is real,
t
 Ak  n x 
 H x  sin   cos t  kz 
     a 
i
H  E   H y 0
  A n  n x 
H
 z   cos   sin  t  kz 
  a  a 

38
z
Phase and group velocities in the simple wave guide

Wave 
k      2   
2 2
c 
1

number:
2 2
Wavelength:    , the free  space wavelength
k  
 1
Phase vp   ,
velocity: k 
larger than free - space velocity
Group velocity:
d k 1
k    
2 2 2
c   vg   
dk  
smaller than free - space velocity
39
 Calculation of Wave Properties
• If a=3 cm, cut-off frequency of lowest order mode is
c 1 3 108 n
fc    5 GHz c 
2 2a  2 0.03 a 
• At 7 GHz, only the n=1 mode propagates and

k       2 72  52  109 / 3 108 103 m  1

1 12
2 2 2
c

2
 6 cm
k

vp  4.3 108 ms 1  c
k
k
vg  2.1 108 ms 1  c
 40
 Flow of EM energy along the simple guide
Fields (c) are:
n x
E x  E z 0, E y  A sin cost  kz 
a
k n n x
H x  E y , H y 0, H z  A cos sin t  kz 
 a a
Total e/m energy
Time-averaged energy: density
1 2 a
1 2 1 2
Electric energy We   E dx  A a W  A a
4 0 8 4

1 2  n   k  
 2 2
1  2
a
Magnetic energy Wm   H dx  A a      
4 0 8  a     
n 2 2
We since k  2  2
2

a 41
 Poynting Vector
  
Poynting vector is S  E  H E y H z ,0, E y H x 
 1 kA2 2 n x
Time-averaged: S  0, 0,1 sin
2  a Total e/m energy
density
1 akA2 1 2
Integrate over x: Sz  W  A a
4  4
Sz k
So energy is transported at a rate:  v g
We  Wm 

Electromagnetic energy is transported down the waveguide

with the group velocity

42