PHS 305/325

PHYSICAL OPTICS
 COURSE CONTENT
• Nature of Light;
• Production of light and measurements,
• Wave properties of light
• Wave Equations;
• Superposition of Waves;
• Interference of Light;
• Optical Interferometry;
• Fraunhofer Diffraction;
• Fresnel Diffraction;
• Production of Polarized Light.
• Matrix treatment of polarization
INTRODUCTION
• Physical optics, also known as wave optics or wave theory of light, is a
branch of optics that deals with the behavior of light as waves.
• It focuses on understanding how light propagates, interacts with
matter, and produces various optical phenomena based on the
principles of wave propagation.
Key concepts and phenomena in physical optics include:
• Wave Nature of Light: Physical optics treats light as an electromagnetic wave composed
of oscillating electric and magnetic fields. It explains phenomena such as diffraction,
interference, polarization, and dispersion based on wave properties.
• Diffraction: Diffraction occurs when light waves encounter obstacles or apertures that are
comparable in size to the wavelength of light. It leads to the bending of light around
edges, the spreading of light beyond the geometrical shadow of obstacles, and the
formation of interference patterns.
• Fraunhofer diffraction is a form of wave diffraction, which occurs when field waves are
passed through an aperture or slit, causing only the size of an observed aperture image to
change due to the far-field location of observation and the increasingly planar nature of
outgoing diffracted waves passing through the aperture.
• Fresnel diffraction is a diffraction phenomenon where either of an electron source and an
observation point or both of them located at a finite distance from an object, thus the
incident wave or exit wave cannot be regarded as a plane wave.
• Interference: Interference arises when two or more coherent light waves superpose to
produce a resultant wave pattern. It leads to the formation of alternating bright and dark
fringes in regions where waves reinforce or cancel each other, respectively.
• Polarization: Polarization refers to the orientation of the electric field vector of light
waves. Physical optics explains how light can be polarized by selective absorption,
reflection, or scattering processes and how polarizers can filter or manipulate polarized
light.
• Dispersion: Dispersion occurs when the speed of light varies with its wavelength as it
passes through a medium. This phenomenon leads to the separation of white light into
its constituent colors (dispersive prism effect) and the spectral dependence of refractive
indices.
• Huygens-Fresnel Principle: According to this principle, every point on a wavefront acts
as a source of secondary spherical wavelets, and the sum of these wavelets determines
the shape of the subsequent wavefront. It provides a basis for understanding wave
propagation and diffraction phenomena.

• Waveguides and Optical Fibers: Physical optics principles are used to analyze and
design waveguides and optical fibers, which guide and transmit light waves over long
distances with minimal loss and dispersion.
• Physical optics is essential for understanding a wide range of optical
phenomena encountered in various fields, including physics,
engineering, astronomy, and biology. It provides a theoretical
framework for interpreting experimental observations and designing
optical systems and devices for practical applications.
 Nature of Light
Light has two natures
1. particle nature
2. wave nature
• Hence, the wave- particle duality of light according to quantum mechanics.
• It states that all the particles and quantum entities have not only a wave
behaviour but also a particle behaviour.
• The key difference between wave and particle nature of light is that the
wave nature of light states that light can behave as an electromagnetic
wave, whereas the particle nature of light states that light consists of
particles called photons.
 What is Wave Nature of Light?

• Physical optics treats light as an electromagnetic wave composed of

oscillating electric and magnetic fields. It explains phenomena such as
diffraction, interference, polarization, and dispersion based on wave
properties.

• A wave is a periodic oscillation by which energy is transmitted through

space.
• Wave nature of light states that the light is a type of electromagnetic wave.
• Humans can see this wave.
• The first illustration of the wave nature of light was using the experiments on
diffraction and interference.
 Wave Nature of Light
• Light, as same as all other electromagnetic waves, can travel through a vacuum. Also, it is
periodic, which means it is repeated regularly in both space and time. Similar to other
waves, light also has a wavelength (the distance between two waves), frequency (the
number of waves that occur per unit time) and a speed (around 3 x 10 8 m/s).
 Production of light and measurements
• There are countless sources of light, but they can all be categorized under either of the two
following categories-
• Natural sources
• Artificial sources
 Production of light and measurements
Natural sources
• The universe is filled with objects that emit light. Some light from these sources reaches the
earth. The following things in nature have the ability to emit light:
• The Sun is the major source of light for the earth. The sun is a massive ball of fire, at the
centre of which nuclear fusion produces massive energy. This energy comes out as heat and
light. The light from the sun is one of the major factors behind the sustainability of life on
earth.
• Every other star produces light too, but only a small or no amount of it reaches the earth
because of the huge distance.
• The moon provides light as well but it cannot produce light on its own. The light that we
get from the moon is the light reflected by it from the sun.
• Some living organisms have the ability to produce light too. It is called bioluminescence. It
is the effect of certain chemical reactions within the organism. Fireflies, jellyfish, glow-
worm, certain deep-sea plants, and microorganisms can be cited as examples.
• Certain other natural phenomena such as lightning and volcanic eruptions also emit light.
Artificial Light Sources:
Apart from natural sources, light can be produced artificially too. The different light
sources produced artificially can be put under three broad categories-
• Incandescent Sources:
When certain objects are heated to a high temperature, they begin to emit light. Both
infrared and visible light is produced in the process. Example- Candle, incandescent
lamp.
• Luminescent Sources:
Light can be produced by accelerating charges in a luminescent material. One
common way of doing it is by passing current through the material. Example-
Fluorescent tube light, electric bulb
• Gas Discharge Sources:
Passing electricity through certain gases at very low pressure can produce light too.
Example – Neon lamp, Sodium lamp.
 Production of light and measurements
• The word light, as commonly used, refers to the radiant energy which produces a visual
effect. light is an electromagnetic radiation, propagated with a speed whose value was
numerically determined by the relationship between electric and magnetic units.
• the velocity of light in vacuum, represented by the symbol c, is given by the equation

c   0 0
• The permeability constant is given by μ 0 = 4𝝅×10 -7 H/m. The permittivity of free
space ϵ0 possesses the value 8.85✕ 10 -12 Farad/meter. The field in permeability is the
magnetic field. The field in permittivity is the electric field. Hence, c is 3x108 m/s.
• Radiant energy, in its interaction with matter, behaves as though it consists of
bundles of energy. The amount of energy E in each bundle, or quantum, is related to the
frequency f by the equation E = hf. It is called photon
• Where h is Planck's constant 6.62607015 × 10 −34 joule second.
Wave Properties of Light

The following are the wave properties of light:

 Reflection of light
 Refraction of light
 Dispersion of light
 Diffraction of light
 Polarisation of light
 Interference of light
 Reflection of light

Reflection is the bouncing back of the light rays after it strikes an opaque
surface or any medium through which light cannot pass. Reflection is the
phenomenon in which light travelling in one medium, incident on the surface
of another returns to the first medium, obeying the laws of reflection.
According to the laws of reflection
1.The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal to the surface at the point
of incidence all lie in the same plane.
2.The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
 Reflection of light

• Types of Reflection
1.Regular
• When a beam of parallel light rays is incident on a smooth and plane
surface, the reflected rays will also be parallel. This type of reflection is
called Regular Reflection. In this case, the angle of reflection of the light
is equal to the angle of incidence and on the opposite side of the normal
to the point of incidence. Reflection from a polished surface is called
regular (specular)reflection. Images formed are clear.
 Reflection of light

2. Diffuse
When a beam of parallel light rays is incident on a rough surface, the
reflected rays scatter in different directions. This type of reflection is
called irregular or diffuse reflection. In this case, the angle of reflection
of the light is not equal to the angle of incidence. Reflection from a
rough surface is called diffuse reflection. Images formed are blurry.
3. Multiple Reflection
• A single image is formed when an object is placed in front of a mirror.
What happens if we use two mirrors? Since reflective surfaces such as
mirrors are very good at preserving the intensity of light in a
reflection, a single light source can be reflected multiple times. These
multiple reflections are possible until the intensity of light becomes
low to the point that we cannot see. The number of images we see
depends on the angle between the two mirrors.
•
3600
Number of images  1
angle between mirrors
 Refraction of light
• Refraction is the bending of light as it passes from one medium (transparent substance) into
another medium. Refraction is a phenomenon in which there is a change in the speed of
light as it travels from one medium to another and there is a bending of the ray of light. The
refracted ray obeys the following laws.
1.The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the surface at the point of incidence all
lie in the same plane.
2.For the given pair of media and for the light of the given wavelength, the ratio of the sin of
the angle of incidence to the sin of the angle of refraction is always a constant.
Refraction of light

Where
Interference of Light
• Interference is a natural phenomenon that happens at every place
and at every moment.
• Interference is the phenomenon in which two waves superpose to
form the resultant wave of the lower, higher or same amplitude.
• The most commonly seen interference is the optical interference or
light interference.
• The most common example of interference of light is the soap bubble
which reflects wide colours when illuminated by a light source.
• For example, incandescent bulbs generate a wide range of
frequencies of light, including all colours of the rainbow
 Conditions for Interference of Light Waves

• For sustained interference of light to occur, the following

conditions must be met:
1.Coherent sources of light are needed.
2.Amplitudes and intensities must be nearly equal to produce sufficient contrast
between maxima and minima.
3.The source must be small enough that it can be considered as a point source
of light.
4.The interfering sources must be near enough to produce wide fringes.
5.The source and screen must be far enough to produce wide fringes.
6.The sources must emit light in the same state of polarization.
7.The sources must be monochromatic.
8.Superposition principle must apply
What Are Coherent Sources

• The source which emits a light wave with the same frequency, amplitude,
wavelength and phase or having a constant phase difference is known as a
coherent source.
• Two sources are said to be coherent when the waves emitted from them have the
same frequency and constant phase difference.
• A coherent source forms sustained interference patterns when the waves
superimpose and the positions of maxima and minima are fixed. E.g: laser light
and Sound waves produced from speakers
Characteristics of Coherent Sources

• Coherent sources have the following characteristics:

1.The waves generated have a constant phase difference
2.The waves are of a single frequency

• Coherent Source Example

• Laser light is an example of a coherent source of light. The light
emitted by the laser light has the same frequency and phase.
• Sound waves are another example of coherent sources. The electrical
signals from the sound waves travel with the same frequency and
have constant phase difference.
 Incoherent Source

• An incoherent source emits a light wave having a different frequency,

wavelength and phase. E.g: Tungsten filament lamps and Normal
fluorescent tubes emit incoherent light.
Types of Interference

• Interference of light waves can either

be constructive interference or
destructive interference.
• Constructive interference:
Constructive interference takes place
when the crest of one wave falls on the
crest of another wave such that the
amplitude is maximum. These waves
will have the same displacement and
are in the same phase.
• Destructive interference: In
destructive interference, the
crest of one wave falls on the
trough of another wave such
that the amplitude is minimum.
The displacement and phase of
these waves are not the same.
The principle of superposition of waves
• The principle of superposition of waves states that when two or more
waves of the same type are incident on the same point, the resultant
amplitude at that point is equal to the vector sum of the amplitudes
of the individual waves.

• If the crest of a wave meets the crest of another wave of the same
frequency at the same point, then the resultant amplitude is the sum
of individual amplitudes – this is known as constructive interference.
Similarly, suppose a wave’s crest meets another wave’s trough. In that
case, the resultant amplitude is equal to the difference in the
individual amplitudes – this is known as destructive interference.
 Principle of superposition
• Principle of superposition states that whenever two or more waves are
travelling in the same region, the resultant displacement at any point is
the vector sum of their individual displacement at that point.
• For examples,

y(x,t) = y1(x,t) + y2(x,t)

 Incident wave: yi(x,t) =A sin (kx –ωt) ;

Reflected wave: yr(x,t) = A sin (kx + ωt)

Resultant wave : yR (x,t) = A [sin (kx – ωt) + sin (kx + ωt)]

Setting α = kx + ωt ; β = (kx – ωt), given the trigonometry identity,

sin α + sin β = 2 sin *(α + β)/2+ cos *(α - β)/2+, we have finally,

yR(x,t) = (2Asin kx) cos ωt

The Equation represents a standing wave when the reflection coefficient is equal to
one and when there is no phase shift at the reflection.
• The two displacements may add together, and the
resulting wave has a larger amplitude. The two
waves are said to be in phase, and the resulting
build – up of amplitude is called constructive
interference;

• At other frequencies or wavelengths, the

displacements of the waves are in opposing
directions. These waves are said to be out of
phase, and their amplitudes tend to cancel. This
effect is called destructive interference. In fact
waves of these frequencies are suppressed.
 Interference

• Interference is defined as the interaction (superposition) of two or more wave

motions.
Constructive interference
• The resultant displacement is greater than the displacement
  of the individual wave.
y  y y  y
y2 1 2

y1
x
0

• It occurs when y1 and y2 have the same wavelength, frequency and in phase.
33
Destructive interference
• The resultant displacement is less than the displacement of the
individual wave ory equal to zero.

y2   
y  y1  y2 0
x
0

y1

• It occurs when y1 and y2 have the same wavelength, frequency and out of
phase 34
 Stationary (standing) waves
• is defined as a form of wave in which the profile of the wave does not move
through the medium.
• It is formed when two waves which are travelling in opposite directions, and
which have the same speed, frequency and amplitude are superimposed.
• For example, consider a string stretched between two supports that is plucked
like a guitar or violin string as shown in Figure.

35
• When the string is pluck, the progressive
wave is produced and travel in both
directions along the string.
• At the end of the string, the waves will be
reflected and travel back in the opposite
direction.
• After that, the incident wave will be
superimposed with the reflected wave and
produced the stationary wave with fixed
nodes and antinodes as shown in Figure.

• Node (N) is defined as a point at which the displacement is zero where

the destructive interference occurred.
• Antinode (A) is defined as a point at which the displacement is
maximum where the constructive interference occurred.
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 Characteristics of stationary waves
(i) The disturbance is confined to a particular region between the starting point and the
reflecting point of the wave.

(ii) There is no onward motion of the disturbance from one particle to the adjoining particle
and so on beyond this particular region.

(iii) The total energy associated with a stationary wave is twice the energy of each of the
incident and the reflected wave. There is no flow of energy along the stationary waves.

(iv) In a stationary wave, the medium splits up into a number of segments. Each segment is
vibrating up and down as a whole. All the particles in one particular segment vibrate in the
same phase.

(v) There are certain points in the medium of the standing wave, which is permanently at
rest. These are called nodes. And certain other points in the medium where the amplitude is
maximum which are called antinodes.
• From the Figure, 
• The distance between adjacent nodes or antinodes is 2

• The distance between a node and an adjacent antinode is 4
•  = 2  (the distance between adjacent nodes or antinodes)
• The pattern of the stationary wave is fixed hence the amplitude of each
particles along the medium are different. Thus the nodes and antinodes
appear at particular distance and determine by the equation of the stationary
38
wave.
 Equation of stationary waves
• By considering the wave functions for two progressive waves,

y1 x, t  a sin(t  kx)

y2 x, t  a sin(t  kx)
• And by applying the principle
 of superposition
 hence
y  y1 x, t  y2 x, t 
y a sin t  kx  a sin t  kx 
y asin t cos kx  cos t sin kx 
 asin t cos kx  cos t sin kx 
y 2a sin t cos kx
y  A cos kx sin t and A 2a
where A : amplitude of the stationary wave
a : amplitude of the progressive wave
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Explanation for the equation of stationary wave
• A cos kx
• Determine the amplitude for any point along the stationary wave.
• It is called the amplitude formula.
• Its value depends on the distance, x
• Antinodes
• The point with maximum displacement = A

A cos kx  A
cos kx 1
kx cos 1
1

kx 0,  ,2 ,3 ,...

kx m where m 0,1,2,3,...
m 2
x and k 
k  40
 Therefore
Antinodes are occur when
 m  3
x    x 0, ,  , ,...
• Nodes  2 2 2
• The point with minimum displacement = 0
A cos kx 0
kx cos  1 0 
 3 5
kx  , , ,...
2 2 2
n
kx   where n 1,3,5,...
2
n 2
x and k 
Therefore 2k 
Nodes are occur when
n
x     3 5
x  , , ,...
 4 4 4 4 41
• sin t
• Determine the time for antinodes and nodes will occur in the stationary wave.
• Antinodes
• The point with maximum displacement = A

A sin t  A sin t 1
t sin  1 1
 3 5
t  , , ,...
2 2 2
n
t  where n 1,3,5,...
2
n 2
t and  
Therefore T
2
Antinodes are occur when the
n
t  T time are T 3T 5T
t  , , ,...
 4 4 4 4 42
• Nodes
• The point with minimum displacement = 0
A sin t 0
sin t 0
t sin  1 0
t 0,  ,2 ,3 ,...
t m where m 0,1,2,3,...
m 2
t and  
 T
Nodes are occur when the time
Therefore  m T 3T
t  T are
t 0, ,T , ,...
 2 2 2

• At time , t = 0, all the points in the stationary wave at the 43

equilibrium position (y = 0).
Graph of displacement-distance (y-x)

44
 Production of stationary wave

T T 3T
t 0 t t t t T
4 2 4

45
The derivation of wave interference.
 Differences between progressive and stationary waves
Progressive wave Stationary wave

 Wave profile move.  Wave profile does not move.

 All particles vibrate with the  Particles between two adjacent
same amplitude. nodes vibrate with different
amplitudes.
 Neighbouring particles vibrate  Particles between two adjacent
with different phases. nodes vibrate in phase.
 All particles vibrate.  Particles at nodes do not vibrate
at all.
 Produced by a disturbance in  Produced by the superposition
a medium. of two waves moving in opposite
direction.
 Transmits the energy.  Does not transmit the energy.
48
Example 4 :
Two harmonic waves are represented by the equations below
y1 x, t  3 sin t  x 
y2 x, t  3 sin t  x 
where y1, y2 and x are in centimetres and t in seconds.
a. Determine the amplitude of the new wave.
b. Write an expression for the new wave when both waves are
superimposed.
Solution :
a.
b. By applying the principle of superposition, thus

49
Example 5 :
A stationary wave is represented by the following expression:
y 5 cos x sin t
where y and x in centimetres and t in seconds. Determine
a. the three smallest value of x (x >0) that corresponds to
i. nodes
ii. antinodes
b. the amplitude of a particle at
i. x = 0.4 cm
ii. x = 1.2 cm
iii. x = 2.3 cm

50
Solution 4:
By comparing
y 5 cos x sin t with y  A cos kx sin t
thus

a. i. Nodes particles with minimum displacement, y = 0

51
Solution :
a. ii. Antinodes particle with maximum displacement, y = 5 cm

b. By applying the amplitude formula of stationary wave,

i.
ii.

iii.
52
Example 6 :
An equation of a stationary wave is given by the expression below
y 8 cos 2x sin t
where y and x are in centimetres and t in seconds. Sketch a graph
of displacement, y against distance, x at t = 0.25T for a range
of 0 ≤ x ≤.
Solution :
By comparing

thus

and

53
Solution 5:
The particles in the stationary wave correspond to
 Antinode

where and

 Node
where and

The displacement of point x = 0 at time, t = 0.25(2) = 0.50 s in the

stationary wave is

54
Solution 6 :
Therefore the displacement, y against distance, x graph is
y (cm)

x(cm)

A N A N A

55
Exercise 2 :
1. The expression of a stationary wave is given by
y 0.3 cos 0.5x sin 60t
where y and x in metres and t in seconds.
a. Write the expression for two progressive waves resulting the

stationary wave above.

b. Determine the wavelength, frequency, amplitude and velocity
for both progressive waves.
ANS. : 4 m, 30 Hz, 0.15 m, 120 m s1
2. A harmonic wave on a string has an amplitude of 2.0 m,
wavelength of 1.2 m and speed of 6.0 m s1 in the direction of
positive x-axis. At t = 0, the wave has a crest (peak) at x = 0.
a. Calculate the period, frequency, angular frequency and wave
number.
ANS. : 0.2 s, 5 Hz, 10 rad s1 ,5.23 m1
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