Chapter 2: Analog

Modulation
Part 1

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 Modulation
• Modulation is the process of superimposing the information contents of a
modulating signal on a carrier signal (which is of high frequency) by varying
any of the characteristic (Amplitude/ frequency/ phase) of carrier signal
according to the modulating signal.

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Amplitude Modulation
Amplitude modulation (AM) is a system of modulation in which the
amplitude of the carrier is made proportional to the instantaneous
amplitude of the modulating signal (information signal); keeping the
frequency and phase of the carrier wave unchanged.

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 Modulation Index
Modulation Index of AM wave
Let the carrier voltage and the modulating voltage be represented by
vc = Vc Sin ωc t (1)
vm = Vm Sin ωm t (2)

Modulation Index is defined as the ratio modulating voltage (Vm) to carrier

Percentage modulation: %m = m*100 = Vm/Vc * 100 (4)

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 Another way of expressing the modulation index is in terms of the
maximum and minimum values of the amplitude carrier wave.
2Vm= Vmax-Vmin
Vm= (5)

Vc= Vmax-Vm
= Vmax-(Vmax-Vmin)/2
Vc = (6)
Substituting the values of Vm and Vc in the
equation
m=
We get m= (7)

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Degrees of modulation

(a) Undermodulation
(b) 100% Modulation
(c) Overmodulation

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MATHEMATICAL REPRESENTATION OF AM WAVE
vc – the instantaneous value of the carrier signal
Vc – Peak value of the carrier Signal
ωc – Angular frequency of the carrier Signal = 2πfc
vm – the instantaneous value of the modulating signal
Vm – Peak value of the modulating signal
ωm – Angular frequency of the modulating Signal = 2πfm

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 Mathematical representation of AM wave
i. Carrier signal : vc = Vc Sin ωc t (1)
ii. Modulating signal: vm = Vm Sin ωm t (2)
iii. Instantaneous value of envelope (The instantaneous value of AM wave)
A = Vc + vm (3)
A= Vc + Vm Sin ωm t Subs eq. 2 in eq. 3
A= Vc + mVc Sin ωm t We know that m=Vm/Vc
A = Vc (1 + mSin ωm t)(4)
iv. The AM wave
VAM = A sin ωc t (5)
= Vc (1 + mSin ωm t) sin ωc t Subs eq. 4 in eq. 5
= Vc sin ωc t + m Vc Sin ωm t sin ωc t (6)
Using Trigonometry, sinx siny = ½ [cos(x - y) - cos(x + y)]
VAM = Vc sin ωc t + mVc Cos(ωc - ωm) t – mVc Cos(ωc + ωm) t (7)
2 2

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 FREQUENCY SPECTRUM of AM WAVE

• It consists of three terms viz the carrier frequency fc, the lower sideband (LSB)
fc – fm and the upper side band (USB) fc + fm
• Bandwidth (BW) for amplitude modulation is twice the frequency of modulating
signal (2fm).
• Also in modulation by several sine waves simultaneously, as in AM broadcast
service, the BW required is twice the highest modulating frequency.

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Power Relation in AM Wave

• AM wave contains more power than the power contents of the unmodulated carrier
• The amplitudes of the sideband components are dependent on the modulation
index, the total power in AM wave also varies in proportion with the modulation
index.
• The total power in AM wave is
• Pt=[Carrier Power]+[Power in USB]+[Power in LSB]
• Pt=+ VCAR, VUSB, VLSB are the rms values of the carrier and sideband amplitudes and R
is the resistance of the antenna in which total power is dissipated.

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Carrier Power
• Pc= ==
Power in sidebands
• PUSB= PLSB= ====Pc
• PUSB= PLSB=Pc
Total power
• Pt= Pc+PUSB+PLSB=Pc+Pc+Pc=Pc+Pc= Pc
• Pt = Pc or =
Modulation index
m2= 2=m=

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 Problems
• A modulating signal 10sin( 2π x is used to modulate a carrier signal
20sin( 2π x . Find the modulation index, percentage modulation,
frequencies of sidebands and their amplitudes. What is the bandwidth
of the modulated signal?
• Soln:
• Modulating voltage: 10sin( 2π x so Vm=10v, fm=103Hz=1 KHz.
• Carrier voltage:20sin( 2π x so Vc=20v, fc=104Hz=10 KHz.
• Modulation index: m=Vm/Vc=10/20=0.5.
• Percentage modulation: 0.5*100=50%.
• Frequencies of sidebands components.
• USB=fc+fm=(10+1)*103= 11KHz, LSB= fc-fm= =(10-1)*103= 9KHz
• Amplitude of sidebands= mVc/2=0.5*20/2=5v

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 Assignment
i) The tuned circuit of the oscillator is a simple AM transmitter employs
a 50 μH coil and a I nf capacitor, If the oscillator output is modulated
by audio frequencies up to 10KHz. What is the frequency range
occupied by the side bands.
ii) A 400W carrier is modulated to a depth of 100/75/50 percent.
Calculate the total power in the modulated wave, sideband power.
iii) A modulating signal 5sin( 2π x is used to modulate a carrier signal
6sin( 2π x . Find the modulation index, percentage modulation,
frequencies of sidebands and their amplitudes. What is the bandwidth
of the modulated signal?

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Low level and High level modulation
Low level modulation:
• Generation of AM wave takes place at a low power level.
• Generated AM signal is amplified using a cascading of linear amplifiers.
• Linear amplifiers are required in order to avoid any waveform distortion.

High Level modulation:

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Generation of AM (Emitter modulation)
• In AM, the amplitude of the high frequency (carrier) is controlled by the low
frequency (modulating) signal
• In order to generate AM wave a non-linear device such as Transistor is used.
• A non-linear device makes it possible to multiply the two signals viz. the modulating
signal & the carrier signal, thus resulting in a range of frequencies at the output
• The filter circuit at the output attenuates the higher harmonics to produce an output
voltage with the waveform of AM wave.
• When no modulating signal present, the circuit operates as a linear amplifier.
• The output is the amplified carrier by the quiescent voltage gain.
• When a modulating signal is applied, the amplifier operates nonlinearly, and signal
multiplication occurs.
• The modulating signal varies the gain of the amplifier at a sinusoidal rate equal to the
frequency of the modulating signal.

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Generation of AM (Emitter modulation)
1. Transistor operates as a linear amplifier in class
A mode.
2. Resistors R1 and R2 forms the voltage divider
biasing circuit to fix the Q point at the center of
the active region.
3. Carrier signal is applied directly to the base via
coupling capacitor Cin and the modulating signal
is applied through isolation transformer to the
emitter of the transistor.
4. Modulating signal drives the circuit, producing
the nonlinear amplification necessary for
modulation to occur.
5. Amplified carrier signal at the collector output will
now vary in accordance with the modulating
voltage at the emitter.
6. Collector waveform includes carrier, upper and
lower side frequencies as well as a component
at the modulating frequency.
7. Coupling capacitor Cc removes the modulating
signal frequency from the waveform producing a
symmetrical AM envelope at the output

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 Amplitude Demodulation (diode detector)
• Demodulators or detectors are circuits that accept modulated signals and recover
the original modulating information.
• Demodulation circuit is one of the important circuit in any radio receiver.

• In every positive half cycle of the input the detector diode is forward biased.
• It will charge the filter capacitor C connected across the load resistance R to almost the
peak value of the input voltage.
• As soon as the capacitor charges to the peak value, the diode stops conducting.
• The capacitor will discharge through R between the positive peaks.
• Thus we can recover the original modulating signal with some ripple included.
• RC time constant must be slow enough to keep the ripple as small as possible, but high
enough to follow the fastest modulation variation.

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Advantages and
disadvantages of AM
Advantages
• Simple to implement
• Demodulated using a circuit consisting of few components
• AM receivers are very cheap as no specialized components are needed.
Disadvantages
• Not efficient in terms of its power usage. Pt=Pc(1+m2/2)
• Not efficient in terms of its of Bandwidth, requiring a bandwidth equal to twice
the highest audio frequency.
• Prone to high levels of noise because most noise is amplitude based and cannot
be easily removed by AM detectors

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