COMMUNICATIONS,

NETWORKS,
& CYBERTHREATS
 Objectives
 Networks & Wired & Wireless Media
 From the Analog to the Digital Age. How do digital data
and analog data differ, and what does a modem do?
 Networks. The benefits of networks.
 Wired Communications Media
 Wireless Communications Media
 Cyberthreats, Security, & Privacy Issues
 Cyberintruders: Trolls, Spies, Hackers, & Thieves
 Cyberattacks & Malware
 Concerns about Privacy & Identity Theft

2
 Digital convergence
• Digital convergence refers to the merging of various digital technologies,
media, and communication into a single device or platform. It is the
integration of various technologies such as computers, telecommunication,
and media into a single, seamless, and accessible system.
• For example, in the past, a person might have used separate devices such as
a television, a computer, a phone, and a music player, but now with digital
convergence, all these functions can be performed by a single device such as
a smartphone.
• This convergence has greatly changed the way we access and use digital
content and services, making it easier and more convenient for people to
stay connected and entertained.
3
 From The Analog To The Digital Age
• Analog is the process of taking an audio or video signal and translating it
into electronic pulses
• Digital is breaking the signal into a binary format whereby the audio or
video data is represented by a series of 1s and 0s.
• Humans experience most of the world in analog form—our vision, for
instance, perceives shapes and colors as smooth gradations.
• But most analog events can be simulated digitally.

4
 Analog
• Analog signals are electrical signals that are continuous in nature and vary
over time to represent physical or real-world signals. Analog signals have an
infinite range of values and can take on any value within a specific range.
• For example, analog audio signals, such as those from a record player, are
continuous and vary in amplitude and frequency over time to represent
sound waves
• Analog signals are susceptible to noise and interference, which can result in
the degradation of the signal quality over long distances. To address these
issues, analog signals are often converted to digital signals, which can be
processed, stored, and transmitted more efficiently and accurately. This
process is called analog-to-digital conversion
5
 Digital
• Digital describes any system based on discontinuous data
or events; in the case of computers, it refers to
communications signals or information represented in a
two-state (binary) way using electronic or electromagnetic
signals. Each 0 and 1 signal represents a bit
• Digital signals are easier to store and manipulate
electronically.
• Digital signals are widely used in modern communication
and information systems, including the Internet, digital
television, and digital audio.

6
 Purpose of the Modem
• A modem is short for “ modulate/ demodulate.” A sending modem
modulates digital signals into analog signals for transmission over phone
lines or other transmission media. A receiving modem demodulates the
analog signals back into digital signals

7
 NETWORKS
• Whether wired or wireless or both, a network, or communications network,
is a system of interconnected computers, telephones, or other
communications devices that can communicate with one another and share
applications and data.
• Computer networks are networks of computers and other devices, such as
smartphones and tablets, that are connected to exchange information and
resources.
• Examples of computer networks include local area networks (LANs),
wide area networks (WANs), and the Internet

8
 The Benefits of Networks
• Sharing hardware
• Sharing software
• Sharing data and information
• Better communication
• Assessing databases
• Centralized communication
• Security of information

9
 Types of Networks
• A local area network (LAN), or local net, connects computers and devices
in a limited geographic area, such as one office, one building, or a group of
buildings close together.
• A wireless LAN (WLAN) is a LAN that uses radio frequencies rather than
physical wires to connect computers and other devices.
• A newer example of a LAN is a home area network, which links a
household’s digital devices
• Another LAN is the personal area network, which uses short-range
wireless technology (such as Bluetooth) to connect an individual’s personal
electronics, such as a smartphone, laptop, tablet, and printer.

10
 Types of Networks
• A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a communications network
covering a city or a suburb.
• MANs are designed to connect multiple LANs (Local Area Networks)
within a metropolitan area, allowing users to share resources, collaborate,
and communicate with each other.
• Many cellphone systems are MANs, and some cities set up wireless MANs
to connect local area networks to the Internet.
• Another example is a business network connecting multiple offices of a
company within a metropolitan area, allowing employees to collaborate
and communicate with each other, share resources, and access company
information.
11
 Types of Networks
• A wide area network (WAN) is a communications network that covers a
wide geographic area, such as a country or the world. Most long-distance
and regional telephone companies are WANs. A WAN may use a
combination of satellites, fiber-optic cable, microwave, and copper-wire
connections and link a variety of computers, from mainframes to terminals
• WANs are used to connect local area networks, so that users and computers
in one location can communicate with users and computers in other
locations.
• A wide area network may be privately owned or rented
• A typical example is the internet

12
 Network Architectures
• Network architecture is the name given to how a network is structured and
how it shares and coordinates resources.
• Two principal network architectures are
• client-server and
• peer to peer

13
 Network Architectures
• A client-server network consists of clients, which are microcomputers that
request data, and servers, which are central computers used to supply data.

14
 Network Architectures
• The word peer denotes one who is equal in standing with another (as in the
phrases “peer pressure” and “jury of one’s peers”).
• In a peer-to-peer (P2P) network, all microcomputers on the network
communicate directly with one another without relying on a server.
• In these kinds of networks, there’s no main server; each client functions
both as a client and as a server simultaneously.
• Each computer can share files and peripherals with all other computers on
the network

15
Network Architectures

16
 Which Architecture Is Better?
• Client-server networks are more secure than peer-to-peer networks
because users can’t log on unless they supply valid usernames and
passwords listed on the server, and the users may access only those
resources the server allows them
• Peer-to-peer networks are less stable because certain shared resources
reside on each user’s machine. If users crash their computers, they can
seriously affect their peer-to-peer network. Security can become a problem
because users are free to create their own passwords for various resources
available on their computers. The computer that contains the shared
resources doesn’t check on who’s trying to access those resources. Any
user can access them as long as he or she knows the password.
17
 Intranet
• An intranet is an organization’s internal private network that uses the
infrastructure and standards, technology, protocols, and hypertext links
of the public Internet and web.
• The intranet is an in-house website on the company’s LAN that serves
employees only. Although intranet pages may have links to websites
on the Internet, the intranet is not exposed to and is not accessed by
the general public.
• An intranet provides a standard in-company way to publish, for
example, company policy, email addresses, news, schedules, medical
and insurance forms, employee benefit information, jobs available
within the company, and training manuals.
18
 Extranet
• Extranets are private intranets that connect not only internal personnel
but also selected suppliers and other strategic parties via public
communications systems.
• Most extranets use the Internet as the entry point for outsiders,
security restrictions (firewall) to limit access, and a secure protocol for
authenticating users.
• Extranets have become popular for standard transactions such as
purchasing, supporting a mobile sales force, communicating product
plans, obtaining customer feedback, and servicing law-firm clients

19
 VPN
• VPN stands for virtual private network, a private network that uses a
public network (usually the Internet) to connect remote sites.
• VPNs create a secure, encrypted "tunnel" between the user's device
and the VPN server, protecting the data transmitted over the Internet
from being intercepted by unauthorized parties.
• VPNs are often used by individuals and organizations for several
purposes, including:
• Remote access
• Internet security
• Location hiding
• Access to restricted contents
20
 Firewalls
• A firewall is a system of hardware and/or software that protects a
computer or a network from intruders.
• All messages entering or leaving the private network pass
through the firewall, which examines each message and blocks
those that do not meet the specified security criteria.
• If you have more than one computer and you are linked to the
Internet by a cable modem or DSL, you probably need a
hardware firewall
• A software firewall is a type of firewall that is installed and runs
on a computer or network device, such as a router or a server. E.g.
windows firewall
21
 Components of a Network
• PROTOCOLS, or communications protocol, is a set of conventions
governing the exchange of data between hardware and/or software
components in a communications network. Every device connected to
a network has an Internet Protocol (IP) so that other computers on the
network can properly route data to that address. Sending and receiving
devices must follow the same set of protocols
• Protocols are built into the hardware or software you are using. The
protocol in your communications software, for example, will specify
how receiver devices will acknowledge sending devices, a matter
called handshaking. Handshaking establishes the fact that the circuit
is available and operational. It also establishes the level of device
compatibility and the speed of transmission
22
 Components of a Network
• PACKETS Electronic messages are sent as packets. A packet is a
fixed-length block of data for transmission. A sending computer
breaks an electronic message apart into packets, each of which
typically contains 1,000–1,500 bytes. The various packets are sent
through a communications packet-switching network, such as the
Internet
• Each packet, or electronic message, carries four types of information
that will help it get to its destination:
• (1) the sender’s address (the IP),
• (2) the intended receiver’s address,
• (3) how many packets the complete message has been broken into,
• (4) the number of this particular packet. The packets carry the data in the protocols
that the Internet uses—that is, TCP/IP.
23
 Components of a Network
• HOSTS & NODES The client-server type of network has a host
computer, a central computer that controls the network. The other
devices on the network are called nodes. A node is any device that is
attached (wired or wireless) to a network, for example, a
microcomputer, storage device, scanner, or printer.
• A device called a wireless access point (WAP) when attached to a
wired network essentially extends the range of the network by offering
several wireless nodes, enabling you, say, to wirelessly connect a
computer in a back bedroom to a network at the front of the house.

24
 Network Linking Devices
• A switch is a device that connects computers
to a network and facilitates communication by
sending messages between sender and
receiver nodes. All data that passes between
nodes go through a switch.

• A bridge is an interface (device) used to

connect two similar networks. Or it may
connect two segments of the same local area
network that use the same protocol such as
Ethernet.
25
 Network Linking Devices
• A gateway is an interface permitting communication
between dissimilar networks for instance, between a
LAN and a WAN or between two LANs based on
different network operating systems or different
layouts. Gateways can be hardware, software, or a
combination of the two.
• Routers are specialized devices for transmitting data,
physical devices that join multiply wired and/or
wireless networks. Routers have specific software and
hardware designed for the routing and forwarding of
information
26
 Network Linking Devices
• Backbone: The backbone consists of the main highway including
gateways, routers, and other communications equipment that connects all
computer networks in an organization.
• The backbone acts as the main distribution point for data and provides
connectivity between the various segments and sub-networks of the
larger network.
• The National Science Foundation (NSF) created the first highspeed
backbone in 1987. Called NSFNET, it was a T1 line that connected 170
smaller networks together. A T3 line was developed the following year.

27
 Network Topologies
• The layout, or shape, of a network is called a topology, a
schematic description that includes the network’s nodes and
connecting lines.
• Star topology is one in which all microcomputers and other
communications devices are directly connected to a central
network switch
• The advantage of a star network is that the switch prevents
collisions between messages. Moreover, if a connection is
broken between any communications device and the switch, the
rest of the devices on the network will continue operating.
• However, if the switch goes down, the entire network stops.

28
 Network Topologies
• A ring topology is one in which all microcomputers
and other communications devices are connected in
a continuous loop.
• Electronic messages are passed around the ring until
they reach the right destination. There is no central
server. An example of a ring network is IBM’s
Token Ring Network
• The advantage of a ring network is that messages
flow in only one direction. Thus, there is no danger
of collisions. The disadvantage is that if one
workstation malfunctions, the entire network can
stop working.
29
 Network Topologies
• In a bus topology, all nodes are connected to a single wire or cable, called the
bus. The bus has two endpoints, or terminators, which stop the network signal.
• Each communications device on the network transmits electronic messages to
other devices.
• It is relatively inexpensive, easy to use in peer-to-peer networks, and good for
smaller networks not requiring high speeds.
• It is limited to 20 devices on a network segment that cannot exceed 185 meters

30
 Network Topologies
• A tree network toplogy is a bus network of star networks.
• Below is an example of, a tree network is a combination of two or more
connected star networks. Each star network is a LAN with a central computer
with which microcomputers and other devices are directly connected.

31
 Network Topologies
• Mesh network is based on the principle that each node has
more than one connection to the other nodes so that a
message can take any possible shortest, easiest route to
reach its destination.
• With this arrangement, if a path between two nodes is
disrupted, data can be automatically rerouted along
another path. Because of the alternative connections.
• The Internet employs the mesh network topology, which is
why (most of the time) a message ultimately finds a route
to its destination

32
 Ethernet
• Ethernet is a network standard for linking all devices in a local area network
that describes how data can be sent between computers and other networked
devices usually in close proximity.
• Ethernet uses cables to connect devices; its wireless counterpart is Wi-Fi.
• Ethernet is the most popular LAN standard in the world.
• This popularity is the reason why most new microcomputers come equipped
with an Ethernet card and an Ethernet port

33
 Ethernet
• The most common version of Ethernet (called 10Base-T ) handles about 10
megabits per second.
• A newer version, Fast Ethernet (or 100Base-T ), transfers data at 100
megabits per second.
• The newest version, Gigabit Ethernet (or 1000Base-T ), transmits data at
the rate of 1 gigabit per second.

34
 Communications Media
• Communications media, or communications channels, carry signals
over a communications path, the route between two or more
communications media devices.
• The speed, or data transfer rate, at which transmission occurs and how
much data can be carried by a signal depends on the media and the type
of signal

35
Types of Wired Communications Media
• The twisted-pair wire consists of two strands of
insulated copper wire, twisted around each other.
• This twisted-pair configuration (compared to straight
wire) somewhat reduces interference (called “crosstalk”
or “noise”) from electrical fields.
• Twisted-pair is relatively slow, carrying data at the rate
of 1–128 megabits per second (normally 56 Kbps).
Moreover, it does not protect well against electrical
interference

36
Types of Wired Communications Media
• Coaxial cable, commonly called “co-ax,” is a high-
frequency transmission cable that consists of
insulated copper wire wrapped in a solid or
braided metal shield and then in an external plastic
cover.
• Co-ax is widely used for cable television and cable
Internet connections.
• A fiber-optic cable consists of dozens or hundreds
of thin strands of glass or plastic that transmit
pulsating beams of light rather than electricity.
• Fiber-optic can transmit up to about 2 billion
pulses per second (2 gigabits) 37
 Wireless Communications Media
• The term wireless describes telecommunications in which
electromagnetic waves (rather than wire or cable) carry the signal over
part or all of the communication path
• Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) is a standard designed to link
nearly all mobile devices to your telecommunications carrier’s wireless
network and content providers.

38
 Types of Wireless Communications
Media
• Read about the following
• Infrared wireless transmission
• Broadcast radio
• cellular radio
• Microwave radio
• Communications satellites
• GPS system

39
Cyber threats,
Security, &
Privacy Issues

40
• The ongoing dilemma of the Digital Age is balancing convenience
against security.
• Security consists of safeguards for protecting information technology
against unauthorized access, system failures, and disasters that can result
in damage or loss.
• Security matters are a never-ending problem, with attacks on computers
and data becoming more powerful and more complex

41
 Cyberintruders

• "Cyberintruders" is a broad term that encompasses various types of

malicious actors in the digital space.

• Trolls are individuals who intentionally post provocative or offensive

content to elicit emotional responses from others.

• Spies are individuals or groups that gather confidential information for

political or financial gain.

42
 Cyberintruders
• Hackers are individuals with advanced technical skills who exploit
vulnerabilities in computer systems or networks for various purposes,
including financial gain, activism, or espionage.
• Thieves are individuals or groups that steal sensitive or valuable
information or resources, such as money or personal data. It is important
to take steps to protect oneself from cyberintruders, such as using strong
passwords, enabling two-factor authentication, and being cautious when
sharing personal information online.

43
 Cyberattacks & Malware
• A "cyber attack" is a malicious attempt to disrupt, damage, or gain

unauthorized access to a computer system, network, or device.

• A denial-of-service (DoS) attack , or distributed denial-of-service (DDoS)

attack, consists of making repeated requests of a computer system or

network, thereby overloading it and denying legitimate users access to it

• A worm is a program, a subclass of a virus, that copies itself repeatedly into

• a computer’s memory or onto a disk or flash drive or USB device. But

unlike a virus, it has the capability to travel without any human action

44
 Cyberattacks & Malware
• A Trojan horse is a program that pretends to be a useful program, usually

free, such as a game or screen saver, but carries viruses, or destructive

instructions, that perpetrate mischief without your knowledge. (Trojans do

not inject themselves into other files as a computer virus does.)

• A rootkit is a secret software program installed in a computer’s operating

system that someone in another location can use to take control of the

computer

45
 Cyberattacks & Malware
• Blended threats use multiple techniques to attack a computer systems. That

is, a blended threat bundles some of the worst aspects of viruses, worms,

Trojan horses, and other malware and then uses server and Internet

vulnerabilities to initiate and spread a cyberattack

• "zombie" refers to a compromised computer or device that has been

infected by malware, allowing it to be controlled remotely by an attacker.

Zombies are often used in botnets, which are networks of infected devices

that can be used to carry out coordinated cyber attacks or malicious

activities, 46
 Cyberattacks & Malware
• Ransomware encrypts the target’s files, and the attacker tells the victim to

make a payment of a specified amount to a special account to receive the

decryption key

• A time bomb is malware programmed to “go off” at a particular time or date.

• A "logic bomb" is a type of malware that is designed to activate when a

certain condition or set of conditions is met. Logic bombs can be

programmed to activate after a certain number of uses or after a specific

trigger, such as the deletion of a file or the termination of an employee

47
 Preventing unwanted intruders
• Antivirus

• Passwords

• Biometric authentication

• Encryption

• Firewalls

• Access controls

• Frequent updates

• Training

48
 Assignment
• Privacy is the right of people not to reveal information about themselves.

However, the ease of pulling together information from databases and

disseminating it over the Internet has put privacy under extreme pressure.

Discuss Privacy in the context of information security. Analyze the

implications of beach of privacy to an organization and discuss 5 ways to

guard against identity theft.

49
50