Sampling, Sampling Design

and Sampling Distribution

Dr. Goitom Abraha Portion Three

 Contents to be Covered in the Session
 Sampling Concepts and Principles

 Purpose of Sampling

 Types of Sampling

 Sample Size

 Population and Sampling Distributions

 Population Parameter and Statistical Inference

 Learning Outcomes

At the end of this session, participants will be able to:

 Analyze concept of population in research

 Clearly answer “Why sampling is important in research”

 Identify common methods of sampling

 Recognize the problems of bias that should be avoided when

selecting a sample

 Identify the issues to consider when deciding sample size.

 Sampling Concepts and Principles:
Sampling
Sampling means selecting the group that you will actually collect data from in your
research. Or
Sample is representative subset of the population from which generalizations are
made about the population.
For example, if you are researching the opinions of students in your university, you
could survey a sample of 100 students.
In statistics, sampling allows you to test a hypothesis about the characteristics of a
population.
A good sample must be representative of the population and big enough to permit
reasonable analysis .
Sampling Concepts and Principles … (Cont’d)

Population:
 A population consists of the totality of the
observations with which we are concerned.
 It is the entire group we are interested in, which we
wish to describe or draw conclusions about.
 The idea of gathering data from a population is one
that has been used successfully over the years and is
called a census
 Sampling Principles:
• Representativeness: Quality of a sample of having the same

distn of characteristics as the population from which it was selected.

• Sampling unit: unit of which a population is composed and which

is selected in a sample.

• Random selection: Each element has an equal chance of selection

independent of any other event in the selection process.

• Parameter :The summary description of a given variable in a popn.

• Statistic: The summary description of a given variable in a sample.

 Purposes of Sampling (Why Sample?) :

 All members of a population may not be available (or even may be

infinite populations).
Eg: All high temperature values at some location cannot be observed
in their entirety.

 To save budget (cost efficiency).

 To save time (time efficiency).

 Purposes of Sampling (Why Sample?) … Cont’d

 Reduce the number of interviewers (human resource efficiency).

 To collect information on more variables.

 To make the research project manageable.

Types of Sampling:

1. Probability and
2. Non probability methods
 1. Probability Sampling method:
 Probability sampling means that every member of the
population has a chance of being selected. (Zero probability).

It is mainly used in quantitative research.

If you want to produce results that are representative of the

whole population, probability sampling techniques are the most
valid choice.
Types of Probability Sampling:
A. Simple Random Sampling
B. Systematic Random Sampling
C. Stratified Sampling
D. Cluster /Spatial Sampling
Types of Probability Sampling:
Types of Probability Sampling:
A. Simple Random Sampling
 In a simple random sample, every member of the population has an equal
chance of being selected.
 Your sampling frame should include the whole population.
 To conduct this type of sampling, you can use tools like random number
generators or other techniques that are based entirely on chance.

Example: You want to select a simple random sample of 1000 employees of a

social media marketing company. You assign a number to every
employee in the company database from 1 to 1000, and use a random
number generator to select 100 numbers.
B. Systematic Random Sampling
 Systematic sampling is similar to simple random sampling, but
it is usually slightly easier to conduct.

Every member of the population is listed with a number, but

instead of randomly generating numbers, individuals are chosen
at regular intervals.

Example: All employees of the company are listed in

alphabetical order. From the first 10 numbers, you randomly
select a starting point: number 6. From number 6 onwards, every
10th person on the list is selected (6, 16, 26, 36, and so on), and
you end up with a sample of 100 people.
C. Stratified Sampling
 Stratified sampling involves dividing the population into
subpopulations that may differ in important ways.
 It allows you draw more precise conclusions by ensuring that
every subgroup is properly represented in the sample.
 To use this sampling method, you divide the population into
subgroups (called strata) based on the relevant characteristic
(e.g., gender identity, age range, income bracket, job role).
 Based on the overall proportions of the population, you
calculate how many people should be sampled from each
subgroup. Then you use random or systematic sampling to
select a sample from each subgroup.
C. Stratified Sampling

Example: The company has 800 female employees

and 200 male employees. You want to ensure that the
sample reflects the gender balance of the company,
so you sort the population into two strata based on
gender. Then you use random sampling on each
group, selecting 80 women and 20 men, which gives
you a representative sample of 100 people.
 D. Cluster /Spatial Sampling
 Cluster sampling also involves dividing the population into
subgroups, but each subgroup should have similar
characteristics to the whole sample.

Instead of sampling individuals from each subgroup, you

randomly select entire subgroups.

Example: The company has offices in 10 cities across the

country (all with roughly the same number of employees in
similar roles). You don’t have the capacity to travel to every
office to collect your data, so you use random sampling to select
3 offices – these are your clusters.
 2. Non-probability Sampling method:
In a non-probability sample, individuals are selected based on
non-random criteria, and not every individual has a chance of
being included.

This type of sample is easier and cheaper to access, but it has

a higher risk of sampling bias. That means the inferences you
can make about the population are weaker than with probability
samples, and your conclusions may be more limited.
Types of Non-probability Sampling method:

A. Convenience Sampling
B. Purposive Sampling
C. Snowball Sampling
D. Quota Sampling
Types of Non-probability Sampling method:
A. Convenience Sampling
 A convenience sample simply includes the individuals who happen to be
most accessible to the researcher.
This is an easy and inexpensive way to gather initial data, but there is no
way to tell if the sample is representative of the population, so it can’t
produce generalizable results.
Convenience samples are at risk for both sampling bias and selection bias.
Example: You are researching opinions about student support services in
your university, so after each of your classes, you ask your fellow students to
complete a survey on the topic. This is a convenient way to gather data, but
as you only surveyed students taking the same classes as you at the same
level, the sample is not representative of all the students at your university.
B. Purposive Sampling
 This type of sampling, also known as judgement sampling, involves the
researcher using their expertise to select a sample that is most useful to
the purposes of the research.
 It is often used in qualitative research, where the researcher wants to gain
detailed knowledge about a specific phenomenon rather than make
statistical inferences, or where the population is very small and specific.

Example: You want to know more about the opinions and experiences of
disabled students at your university, so you purposefully select a number
of students with different support needs in order to gather a varied range of
data on their experiences with student services.
C. Snowball Sampling
 If the population is hard to access, snowball sampling can be
used to recruit participants via other participants.

The number of people you have access to “snowballs” as you

get in contact with more people.

Example: You are researching experiences of homelessness in

your city. Since there is no list of all homeless people in the city,
probability sampling isn’t possible. You meet one person who
agrees to participate in the research, and she puts you in contact
with other homeless people that she knows in the area.
D. Quota Sampling
 Quota sampling relies on the non-random selection of a
predetermined number or proportion of units. This is called a quota.
 You first divide the population into mutually exclusive subgroups
(called strata) and then recruit sample units until you reach your
quota.

Example: You want to gauge consumer interest in a new produce

delivery service in Boston, focused on dietary preferences. You
divide the population into meat eaters, vegetarians, and vegans,
drawing a sample of 1000 people. Since the company wants to cater
to all consumers, you set a quota of 200 people for each dietary
group. In this way, all dietary preferences are equally represented in
your research, and you can easily compare these groups.You
continue recruiting until you reach the quota of 200 participants for
each subgroup.
Sample Size:

Size of a Given Sample Depends on:

 Heterogeneity: need larger sample to study more diverse population.

 Desired Precision: need larger sample to get smaller error.

 Sampling Design: smaller if stratified, larger if cluster.

 Nature of Analysis: complex multivariate statistics need larger

samples.

 There is no set percentage that is accurate for every population.

 Sample Size … Cont’d
A number of formulae are available to determine sample size
1. Estimating the sample size based on a proportion
Nr = 4pq
d2
Where Nr = required sample size,
p = Proportion of the population having the characteristic (may be
known from prior research or other sources; if it is unknown
use p = 0.5 which assumes maximum heterogeneity (i.e. a
50/50 split).,
q= 1-p and
d = the degree of precision (margin of error that is acceptable)

Setting d= 0.05, for example, would give a margin of error of

plus or minus 5%.
Worked example
1. You are investigating the use of mobile phones for online banking
and want to estimate what proportion of the population uses their
phones in this way at an approximate 95% confidence level.
Answer: Since no data are available on the proportion currently using
their mobile phones you take the worst case scenario and set p = 0.5
(and therefore q = 1-0.5 = 0.5).
As this is a preliminary study you are prepared to accept a margin of
error of ± 5% so you set d = 0.05.
To determine the minimum sample size you then apply the formula:
2. Estimating the sample size based on population standard deviation/
based on a mean
n= 4σ2
d2
Where n = required sample size,
σ (the Greek letter sigma) = the population standard deviation, a
measure of the variation in the population and
d = the degree of precision required by the researcher
Worked example
1. You are investigating the average (mean) level of employee
satisfaction and want to know the required sample size. You decide on
a 95% confidence level.
Answer: Prior studies have reported a standard deviation (σ) of 1.5 so
you decide to use the same figure in your estimate.
Satisfaction will be measured on a 7-point scale and you set a margin
of error of ±0.25 units.
To determine the minimum sample size you then apply the formula:
Population and Sampling Distributions:

A sampling distribution is a probability distribution of a statistic

obtained from a larger number of samples drawn from a specific
population.
It describes a range of possible outcomes for a statistic, such as the
mean of a population.
A sample is a subset of population.
 Population and Sampling Distributions … Cont’d

 Researches learn what they do not observe (parameters) using what

they observe (data).

 The sampling distribution is a description of the accuracy with

which we can make statistical generalization.

Thank You