Statistical

Techniques to
Analyze data
 Statistical Methodologies
1. Descriptive Statistics – this describes a certain aspect
of a data set by making you calculate the Mean,
Median, Mode and Standard Deviation. It tells about
the placement or position of one data item in relation
to the other data, the extent of the distribution or
spreading out of data, and whether they are
correlations or regressions between or among
variables.
2. Inferential Statistics- this method
does not only focus on the features
of the category of set, but on the
characteristics of the sample that are
also true for the population from
where you have drawn the sample.
•Since the sample serves as the basis of
your conclusions or generalizations
about the population, it is a must that
you use random sampling to guarantee
the representativeness of the sample;
meaning, to make sure that the sample
truly represents the population in
general.
Types of Statistical Data Analysis
in a quantitative research:

1. Univariate Analysis- analysis of one

variable
2. Bivariate Analysis- analysis of two
variables (independent and dependent
variables)
3. Multivariate Analysis- Analysis of
multiple relations between
multiple variables
 Statistical Methods of Bivariate
Analysis
1. Correlation or Covariation (correlated variation)
– describes the relationship between two
variables and also tests the strength or
significance of their linear relation. This is a
relationship that makes both variables getting the
same high score or one getting a higher score and
the other one, a lower score.
• Covariance is the statistical term to measure the
extent of the change in the relationship of two
random variables. Random variables are data
with varied values like those ones in the interval
level or scale (strongly disagree, disagree,
neutral, agree, strongly agree) whose values
depend on the arbitrariness or subjectivity of the
respondent.
2. Cross Tabulation – is
also called “crosstab or
students-contingency
table” that follows the
format of a matrix that is
made up of lines of
numbers, symbols and
other expressions.
 Example of Bivariate table:
HEI Participants in the 2016 NUSP Conference
HEI MALE FEMALE ROW TOTAL
CEU 83 (10.2%) 101 (12.2%) 184
FEU 69 (8.5%) 93 (11.3% ) 162
JRU 102 (12.6%) 120 (14.5%) 222
LA SALLE 79 (9.7%) 99 (12%) 178
MLQ 81 (10%) 79 (9.5%) 159
NU 61 (7.5%) 58 (7%) 119
OUP 59 (7.2%) 48 (5.8%) 107
UP 120 (14.8%) 98 (11.9%) 218
UST 152 (18.7% 127 (15.4%) 279
Column Total 806 (100%) 823 (100%) 1, 629
 Quantitative Data Analysis
• Steps in Quantitative Data Analysis:
1. Preparing the Data
a.Coding system – To analyze data means to
quantify or change the verbally expressed data
into numerical information. Converting the
words, images or pictures into numbers, they
become fit for any analytical procedures
requiring knowledge of arithmetic and
mathematical computations.
• For instance, as regards gender variable, give number
1 as code or value for Male and number 2 for Female.
As to educational attainment as another variable,
give the value of 2 for elementary; 4 for high school, 6
for college, 9 for MA, and 12 for PhD level
b. Data Tabulation - For easy classification and
distribution of numbers based on a certain
criterion, you have to collate them with the help
of a graph called Table. Used for frequency and
percentage distribution, this kind of graph is an
excellent data organizer that researchers find
indispensable.
 2. Analyzing the Data
Data coding and tabulation are the two
important things you have to do in preparing
the data for analysis. Before immersing
yourself into studying every component of the
data, decide on the kind of quantitative
analysis you have to use, whether to use
simple descriptive statistical techniques or
advanced analytical methods.
 Measures of Correlation
The following are the statistical tests to measure
correlation or covariation:
1. Correlation Coefficient- this is a measure
of the strength and direction of the linear relationship
between variables and likewise gives the extent of
dependence between two variables; meaning, the
effect of one variable on the other variable. This is
determined through the following statistical tests for
Correlation coefficient:
● Spearman’s rho (Spearman’s r, or r) – the
test to measure the dependence of the
dependent variable on the independent
variable.
● Pearson product -moment correlation
( Pearson’s r, r or R ) – measures the strength
and direction of the linear relationship of two
variables and of the association between
interval and ordinal values.
● Chi-square – is the statistical test for bivariate
analysis of nominal variables, specifically, to test
the null hypothesis. It tests whether or not a
relationship exists between or among variables
and tells the probability that the relationship is
caused by chance. This cannot in any way show
the extent of the association between two
variables.
This table shows -for each education level separately- the
percentages of respondents that fall into each marital status
category. Before reading on, take a careful look at this table and
tell
is marital status related to education level and -if so-
how?
If we inspect the first row, we see that 46% of respondents
with middle school never married. If we move rightwards
(towards higher education levels), we see this percentage
decrease: only 18% of respondents with a PhD degree never
married (top right cell).
Reversely, note that 64% of PhD respondents are married
(second row). If we move towards the lower education levels
(leftwards), we see this percentage decrease to 31% for
respondents having just middle school.

In short, more highly educated respondents

marry more often than less educated respondents.
● t-test – evaluates the probability that the
mean of the sample reflects the mean of the
population from where the sample was
drawn. It also tests the difference between
two means: the sample mean and the
population mean. ANOVA or analysis of
variance also uses t-test to determine the
variance or the difference between the
predicted number of the sample and the
actual measurement.
Example:
The following are the scores of 10
male and 10 female AB students in
spelling. Is there a significant
difference between the
performance of male and female AB
students in the test? Use a t-test at
a 0.05 level of significance.
The ANOVA is of various types such
as the following:
a. One-way analysis of variance – study of the effects of
the independent variable.
b. ANCOVA (Analysis of Covariation) – study of two or
more dependent variables that are correlated with one
another.
c. MANCOVA (Multiple Analysis of Covariation) –
multiple analyses of one or more independent
variables and one dependent variable to see if the
independent variables affect one another.
For example:

• you could use a one-way MANCOVA to

determine whether a number of different
exam performances differed based on test
anxiety levels amongst students, whilst
controlling for revision time (i.e., your
dependent variables would be
"humanities exam performance",
"science exam performance" and
"mathematics exam performance“)
• all measured from 0-100, your independent
variable would be "test anxiety level", which
has three groups – "low-stressed students",
"moderately-stressed students" and
"highly-stressed students" – and your
covariate would be "revision time",
measured in hours). You want to control for
revision time because you believe that the
effect of test anxiety levels on overall exam
performance will depend, to some degree, on
the amount of time students spend revising.
2. Regression
Similar to correlation, regression determines the
existence of variable relationships, but does more than
this by determining the following:
1.) which between the independent and dependent
variable can signal the presence of another variable;
2.) how strong the relationship between the two
variables are;
3.) when an independent variable is statistically
significant as a soothsayer or predictor.