Nautical Physics and Electronics - I

Unit I : Mechanics
Unit II : Acoustics and Ultrasonic
Unit III : Optics
Unit IV : Electricity and Magnetism
Unit V : Electronics Devices and Applications
Basic of Electronics
 TWO TYPES OF SEMICONDUCTORS

The semiconductors are mainly classified as

i) Intrinsic semiconductors
ii) Extrinsic semiconductors

Intrinsic semiconductors
Extrinsic semiconductors

 The intrinsic semiconductor has little current conduction

capability at room temperature. To be useful in electronic devices,
the pure semiconductor must be altered so as to significantly
increase its conducting properties.
 This achieved by adding a small amount of suitable impurity to
a semiconductor. Its is then called impurity or extrinsic
semiconductor.
 The process of adding impurities to a semiconductor is know as
doping.

Depending upon the type of impurity added, extrinsic

semiconductors are classified into

i) n-type semiconductor ii) p-type semiconductor

n-type semiconductor
When a small amount of pentavalent impurity is added to a pure
semiconductor, it is known as n-type semiconductor (n – stands for
negative).

The addition of pentavalent impurity provide a large number of free

electrons in the semiconductor crystal.
Typical example: Arsenic
p-type semiconductor
When a small amount of trivalent impurity is added to a pure
semiconductor, it is known as p-type semiconductor (p – stands for
positive).

The addition of trivalent impurity provide a large number of hole in

the semiconductor crystal.

Typical example: Gallium

PN Junction diode as rectifier

When a p-type semiconductor is suitably joined to n-type

semiconductor the contact surface is called pn junction.

The process in which alternating voltage or alternating

current is converted into direct voltage or direct current
is known as rectification. The device used for this
process is called as rectifier.
 Why rectifier?
For reasons associated with economics of generation and transmission, the
electric power available is usually an a.c supply.
 The supply voltage varies sinusoidally and has a frequency of 50 Hz.
 It is used for lighting, heating and electric motors.
 But there are many applications (e. g. electronic circuits ) where d.c
supply is need.
 When such a d.c supply is required, the mains a.c supply is rectified by
using crystal diodes.
 The following two rectifier circuits can be used.

i) Half-wave rectifier ii) Full-wave rectifier

H a l f- wave re c ti fi e r
In half-wave rectification, the rectifier conducts current only
during the positive half-cycles of input a.c. supply. The negative
half-cycles of a.c. supply are suppressed
i.e. during negative half-cycles, no current is conducted and hence
no voltage appears across the load. Therefore, current always flows
in one direction (d.c) through the load though after every half-cycles.
F u l l - wave re c ti fi e r
In full-wave rectification, current flows through the load in the same
direction for both half-cycles of input a.c. voltage. This can be
achieved with two diodes working alternately. For the positive half-
cycle of input voltage, one diode supplies current to the load and for
the negative half-cycle, the other diode does so; current being always
in the same direction through the load.

Therefore, a full-wave rectifier utilises both half-cycles of input a.c.

voltage to produce the d.c. output.
 Tra n s i sto r
A transistor is a device that regulates current or voltage flow and acts
as a switch or gate for electronic signals. The words trans
mean transfer property and istor mean resistance property
offered to the junctions. Transfer + Resistor  Transistor
i) n-p-n transistor ii) p-n-p transistor

 The transistor which has two blocks of n-type semiconductor material and one
block of p-type semiconductor material is known as n-p-n transistor.

 Similarly, if the material has one layer of n-type material and two layers of p-
type material then it is called p-n-p transistor.

The symbol of n-p-n and p-n-p is shown in the figure below.

Transistor Terminals
The transistor has three terminals namely, emitter, collector and
base. The terminals of the diode are explained below in details.
Some Facts about the Transistor

i) The base is much thinner than the emitter while collector is wider
than both.
ii) The transistor has two pn junctions i.e it is like two diodes.
iii) The junction between emitter and base may be called emitter-base
diode or simply the emitter diode.
iv) The junction between the base and collector may be called
collector-base diode or simply collector diode.
Transistor Symbols
Emitter is shown by an arrow which indicates the direction of conventional
current flow.

For n-p-n connection, it is clear that Similarly, for p-n-p connection, the
conventional current flows out of the conventional current flow into the
emitter as indicated by the outgoing emitter as indicated by inward arrow.
arrow.
 Tra n s i sto r C o n n e c ti o n
There are three leads in a transistor
i) Emitter
ii) Base
iii) Collector

However, when a transistor is to be connected in a circuit, we

require four terminals; two for input and two for output.
Accordingly; a transistor can be connected in a circuit in the
following three ways:

i) Common base connection ii) common emitter

connection

iii) Common collector connection

ii) Common Emitter connection

VBE VCE VBE VCE

A common Emitter n-p-n transistor circuit A common Emitter p-n-p transistor circuit

Current amplification factor ()

The ratio of change in collector current (IC) to the change in base current (IB)
is known as current amplification factor

The current gain is high.

Input Characteristics

The input characteristics of common emitter

connection are obtained between input
current IB and input voltage VBE with constant
output voltage VCE.

Keep the output voltage VCE constant and

VBE VCE
vary the input voltage VBE for different
points, now record the values of input current
at each point.

Now using these values we need to draw a

graph between the values of IB and VBE at
constant VCE.
Input resistance Rin
It is the ratio of input voltage (V BE) to the input
current (IB) at constant output voltage (VCE)

Rin
The input resistance is very low (few hundred ohm).
Output Characteristics
The output characteristics of common
emitter connection are obtained between the
output current IC and output voltage VCE with
constant input current IB.

Keep the base current IB constant and vary

the value of output voltage VCE for different VBE VCE
points, now note down the value of collector
IC for each point.

Plot the graph between the parameters IC and

VCE in order to get the output characteristics
of common
Output emitter R
resistance configuration.
out

It is the ratio of output voltage (V CE) to the

output current (IC) at constant input current (IB)

Rout
The output resistance is high.
 Oscillator
 A transistor can work as an oscillator to produce continuous
undamped oscillation of any desired frequency.

 Oscillators convert a DC input (the supply voltage) into an AC

output (the waveform), which can have a wide range of different wave
shapes and frequencies.

 Oscillators are classified according to the output voltage, into two

types viz. sinusoidal and non-sinusoidal oscillators.

If the output voltage is a sine wave function of time, the oscillator is
said to be sinusoidal oscillator.

 If the oscillator generates non-sinusoidal waveform, such as square,

rectangular waves, then it is called as non-sinusoidal oscillator.
The electrical oscillations The electrical oscillations
whose amplitude goes on whose amplitude remains
decreasing with time are called constant with time are called
damped oscillations. undamped oscillations.

Damped and Undamped Oscillations

 Blue Damped Oscillation
Black Undamped Oscillation
A circuit which produces electrical oscillations of any
desired frequency is known as an oscillatory circuit or tank
circuit.

A simple oscillatory circuit or tank circuit consists of a

capacitor (C ) and inductance coil (L) in parallel.

The frequency of oscillations in the tank circuit is

determined by the constants of the circuit viz L and C.
 Hartley Oscillator
It uses two inductors (L1 & L2) and placed across a common capacitor C and the
centre of the inductors in tapped .
 The tank circuit is made up of L1, L2 and C.

The frequency of oscillations is determined by the values of L 1, L2 and C and is

give by
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