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The document discusses various image processing techniques, focusing on filtering methods such as linear and non-linear filters, including median and bilateral filtering, and their effectiveness against different types of noise. It also covers morphological operations for binary images, distance transforms, Fourier transforms, and the use of image pyramids and wavelets for multi-resolution analysis. Key applications include noise reduction, edge preservation, and image enhancement through various filtering and transformation techniques.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
18 views144 pages

MODULE-2 updated

The document discusses various image processing techniques, focusing on filtering methods such as linear and non-linear filters, including median and bilateral filtering, and their effectiveness against different types of noise. It also covers morphological operations for binary images, distance transforms, Fourier transforms, and the use of image pyramids and wavelets for multi-resolution analysis. Key applications include noise reduction, edge preservation, and image enhancement through various filtering and transformation techniques.

Uploaded by

Surekha
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PPTX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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MODULE 2

Image processing
• Image processing is the technique of performing operations on an
image to enhance it, extract useful information, or transform it for a
specific purpose.
• More neighborhood operators
• Linear filters can perform a wide variety of image transformations.
• Non-linear filters, such as edge-preserving median or bilateral filters, can
sometimes perform even better.
• Examples of neighborhood operators include
• Morphological operators that operate on binary images,
• Semi-global operators that compute distance transforms and find connected
components in binary images
Non-linear filtering
• Non-linear filtering is a technique where the output pixel value is
determined by a non-linear function of the neighborhood pixel
values.
• Non-linear filters are more powerful than linear filters, e.g.
• Suppression of non-Gaussian noise, e.g. spikes
• Edge preserving properties
• The image showcases the effects of different filtering techniques on images corrupted
with Gaussian noise and shot noise (impulse noise). The figure consists of two rows:
• The first row (a–d) demonstrates filtering on an image with Gaussian noise.
• The second row (e–h) demonstrates filtering on an image with shot noise
(impulse noise).
(a) Original image with Gaussian noise:
•The image has been corrupted with Gaussian noise, which affects all pixel values to varying degrees.
(b) Gaussian filtered:
•A Gaussian filter is applied to smooth the noise.
•It reduces noise but also blurs edges due to its averaging nature.
(c) Median filtered:
• A median filter replaces each pixel with the median of its neighborhood.
•It is effective in reducing noise while preserving edges better than the Gaussian filter.
(d) Bilaterally filtered:
•A bilateral filter is applied, which smoothens while preserving edges.
•It is better at edge preservation than the Gaussian filter.
(e) Original image with shot noise:
•The image contains impulse noise (salt-and-pepper noise or shot noise), where some pixels are
randomly bright or dark.
(f) Gaussian filtered:
•The Gaussian filter blurs the noise but does not effectively remove shot noise since it considers all
pixels equally.
g) Median filtered:
•The median filter effectively removes shot noise because it replaces each pixel with the median of
its neighborhood.
•It preserves edges well.
(h) Bilaterally filtered:
•The bilateral filter is not very effective for shot noise.
•Since shot noise pixels are highly different from their neighbors, the bilateral filter fails to remove
them effectively.
• Gaussian filtering is good for reducing Gaussian noise but blurs the
image.
• Median filtering is highly effective against shot noise and preserves
edges well.
• Bilateral filtering is effective in preserving edges while reducing
Gaussian noise but fails for extreme noise variations like shot noise.
Median and bilateral Filtering
• Median Filter (Median = 4)
• The median filter replaces a pixel's value with the median of its
neighborhood.
• The highlighted green pixel (4) represents the median value from the sorted
neighborhood: [1,1,2,2,3,4,5,6,7]
• The median filter is effective for removing salt-and-pepper noise while
preserving edges better than a mean filter.
• α-Trimmed Mean Filter (α-mean = 4.6)
• The α-trimmed mean filter removes the highest and lowest intensity values
before computing the mean.
• The highlighted green pixels are the selected ones for averaging.
• This method reduces the influence of extreme values (outliers), providing a
balance between mean and median filtering.
• Domain Filter (Spatial Weights)
• The domain filter assigns weights based on spatial distance in a Gaussian
manner.
• The numbers in this grid (e.g., 0.1, 0.3, 0.4, etc.) represent the influence of
neighboring pixels.
• Closer pixels (center of kernel) have higher weight (e.g., 0.4), while distant
pixels have lower influence.
• This is the spatial component of a bilateral filter, smoothing nearby pixels
while preserving structure. Range Filter (Intensity Weights)
• The range filter assigns weights based on intensity similarity.
• The numbers represent how much a neighboring pixel contributes to the
filtering.
• Pixels with similar intensity get higher weights (e.g., 1.0 for identical pixels).
• This is the intensity component of a bilateral filter, ensuring that only similar
pixels are averaged, preserving edges.
Median Filter (Best for Spike/Impulse
Noise)
• Replaces each pixel with the median of its neighborhood.
• Great for removing salt-and-pepper noise without blurring edges.
• Works better than the Gaussian filter for images with impulsive noise.
• Median values can be computed in expected linear time using a randomized
select algorithm
• The shot noise value usually lies well outside the true values in the
neighborhood,
• the median filter is able to filter away such bad pixels
• Median filter
• Moderate computational cost
• It selects only one input pixel value to replace each output pixel, it is not as efficient at
averaging away regular Gaussian noise
• A better choice may be the α-Trimmed Mean which averages
together all of the pixels except for the fraction that are the smallest
and the largest
• A weighted median, in which each pixel is used a number of times
depending on its distance from the center.
• This turns out to be equivalent to minimizing the weighted objective function
Bilateral filtering
• Bilateral filtering is a non-linear, edge-preserving, and noise-
reducing smoothing technique.
• Unlike Gaussian filtering, which blurs edges, bilateral filtering selectively
smooths an image while preserving important edges by considering both
spatial proximity and intensity similarity.
• It is commonly used in denoising, cartoonization, and HDR imaging.
Bi lateral Filtering
• This figure visually explains the bilateral filtering process using a 3D surface
representation of an image. Each subfigure represents a different stage in
the filtering process.
(a) Noisy Step Edge Input
• The input image has a sharp edge with noise (random variations).
• The noise appears as small spikes on the surface.
• The goal is to smooth the noise while preserving the sharp edge.
b) Domain Filter (Gaussian Spatial Filter)
• A Gaussian filter is applied based on pixel spatial distance.
• This blurs the image, including edges.
(c) Range Filter (Intensity Similarity Filter)
• A filter is applied based on intensity similarity to the center pixel.
• Pixels with similar intensities receive higher weights, while dissimilar ones receive
lower weights.
• This helps preserve edges while smoothing.
(d) Bilateral Filter (Combination of Spatial + Range Filtering)
• Combines both the domain (spatial) filter and the range (intensity) filter.
• Noise is reduced, but the step edge is preserved.
(e) Filtered Step Edge Output
• The final result: a cleaned-up step edge without excessive smoothing.
• Unlike a simple Gaussian blur, the edge remains sharp.
(f) 3D Distance Between Pixels
• A visualization of how bilateral filtering considers both spatial distance and
intensity similarity.
• The red arrow represents spatial distance.
• The green arrow represents intensity difference.
• The total distance (blue) determines the final weight.
Iterated adaptive smoothing
• IAS applies multiple iterations of smoothing while adapting the filter
strength based on local image characteristics.
• The goal is to reduce noise without excessively blurring edges
• How It Works:
• A Gaussian or bilateral filter is applied iteratively.
• At each iteration, the filter adapts based on local image structure.
• Pixels near edges are smoothed less, while flat regions are smoothed more.
Anisotropic Diffusion (Perona-Malik
Filter)
• Anisotropic Diffusion (AD) is a partial differential equation (PDE)-
based technique that smooths an image while respecting edge
boundaries.
• It mimics heat diffusion but stops diffusion at edges to avoid blurring
them.
Morphology
• While non-linear filters are often used to enhance grayscale and color
images, they are also used extensively to process binary images.
• Such images often occur after a thresholding operation
Morphological Operations in Binary
Image Processing
• Morphological operations are fundamental techniques in image processing,
used primarily for shape manipulation in binary images.
• These operations help analyze and process structures in an image based on
their shape.
• Morphological operations work by probing an image with a structuring
element (SE), which defines how the operation interacts with objects in the
image.
• A binary image consists of pixels that are either 0 (black) or 1 (white).
• A structuring element (SE) is a small shape (e.g., square, circle) that slides over the
image and modifies the pixels based on a predefined rule.
• The process is similar to convolution, but instead of multiplying and summing
values, we apply logical rules (like min, max, or conditional checks).
Binary image morphology
• The figure demonstrates the effects of different morphological operations on
a binary image, where white pixels represent the foreground and black pixels
represent the background.
• A 5 × 5 square structuring element was used for all operations.
(a) Original Image
• This is the input binary image before any morphological operations are applied.
• It contains irregular edges, a small detached dot, and some noise.
(b) Dilation
• Expands the white regions (foreground).
• Effect: The shapes become thicker, and small gaps are filled.
• The detached dot at the top increases in size.
(c) Erosion
• Shrinks the white regions (foreground).
• Effect: The object loses thin structures, and small white regions disappear.
• The detached dot becomes smaller, and thin parts of the main shape erode away.
(d) Majority
• Applies a majority filter, which means a pixel is turned white if the majority
of its neighbors are white.
• Effect: It smooths sharp corners and reduces small noise.
• Unlike erosion or dilation, this operation is more subtle
(e) Opening (Erosion + Dilation)
• Erosion first removes small noise, and then dilation restores the shape.
• Effect: The thin dot disappears (if small enough), and the main object
remains mostly unchanged.
• Since the dot is too large, opening fails to remove it completely.
(f) Closing (Dilation + Erosion)
• Dilation first expands the object, followed by erosion to restore its size.
• Effect: Fills small gaps and smooths edges.
• The main object becomes more connected, but no significant change to the
dot.
Operations - Fundamental binary image
morphology operations using
mathematical notation
Distance transforms
• The Distance Transform (DT) is a fundamental operation in image
processing that computes the distance from every pixel in a binary
image to the nearest object (or background) pixel.
• It is widely used in various applications, including image
segmentation, shape analysis, and feature extraction.
Example
• This image illustrates the City Block Distance Transform using a step-
by-step process.
• The City Block Distance (or Manhattan Distance) transform calculates
the shortest path between pixels, considering only horizontal and
vertical movements.
• The D1 city block distance transform can be efficiently computed
using a forward and backward pass of a simple raster-scan algorithm
Connected components
• Useful semi-global image operation is finding connected components,
which are de fined
asregionsofadjacentpixelsthathavethesameinputvalue(orlabel)
Fourier transforms
• Fourier analysis could be used to analyze the frequency characteristics
of various filters.
• The Fourier Transform (FT) is a fundamental tool in image processing
that helps analyze the frequency content of an image.
• It is widely used for image filtering, compression, and enhancement.
• Input sinusoid whose frequency is f, angular frequency is = 2πf, and phase is
ϴi
• If we convolve the sinusoidal signal s(x) with a filter whose impulse response
is h(x), we get another sinusoid of the same frequency but different
magnitude A and phase ϴ0,
• A convolution can be expressed as a weighted summation of shifted input
signals and that the summation of a bunch of shifted sinusoids of the
same frequency is just a single sinusoid at that frequency

• The new magnitude A is called the gain or magnitude of the filter, while the
phase difference ΔФ = Ф0 - Фi is called the shift or phase.
• The discrete form of the Fourier transform is known as the Discrete Fourier
Trans form (DFT)
Fourier transform pairs
Two-dimensional Fourier transforms
Wiener filtering
Discrete cosine transform
• The discrete cosine transform (DCT) is a variant of the Fourier
transform particularly well suited to compressing images in a block-
wise fashion.
• The one-dimensional DCT is computed by taking the dot product of
each N-wide block of pixels with a set of cosines of different
frequencies
Application: Sharpening, blur, and
noise removal
• Acommon application of image processing is the enhancement of
images through the use of sharpening and noise removal operations,
which require some kind of neighborhood processing.
PYRAMIDS AND WAVELETS
• All of the image transformations produce output images of the same size as the
inputs.
• An image pyramid is a multi-scale representation of an image, where multiple
copies of the image are created at different resolutions.
• This is useful for various applications like image blending, object detection, and efficient
image processing.
• We may need to interpolate a small image to make its resolution match that of the
output printer or computer screen.
• Interpolation is used when enlarging an image, filling in missing pixels by estimating their
values from surrounding pixels
• We may want to reduce the size of an image to speed up the execution of an
algorithm or to save on storage space or transmission time
• Downscaling (or subsampling) is used when reducing an image's size, often applying a low-
pass filter to avoid aliasing (jagged edges or moiré patterns).
Wavelet
Interpolation Equation
•This equation essentially spreads or distributes each pixel of the original image
across a higher-resolution grid using the kernel h(x,y)
• The kernel h(x,y)defines how neighboring pixels contribute
to the new pixel values.
• Nearest-neighbor interpolation uses a simple step
function.
• Bilinear interpolation uses a linear function.
• Bicubic interpolation uses a cubic function for smoother
results.
Signal Interpolation
• Bicubic interpolation is a higher-quality interpolation method
compared to bilinear interpolation.
Visually compares different image interpolation techniques for enlarging an
image.
Comparison
Decimation
• While interpolation can be used to increase the resolution of an
image, decimation (downsam pling) is required to reduce the
resolution.
• To perform decimation, we first (conceptually) convolve the image
with a low-pass filter (to avoid aliasing) and then keep every rth
sample.
Signal decimation process, which is a key
concept in downsampling an image or a signal.
Why use low- pass filter
Multi-resolution representations
• Pyramids can be used to accelerate coarse-to-fine search algorithms,
to look for objects or patterns at different scales, and to per form
multi-resolution blending operations.
• The Laplacian pyramid is a multi-scale representation of an image
used in computer vision and image processing.
• It is constructed by recursively blurring and downsampling an image, then
storing the difference between consecutive levels.
• This method is particularly useful for image compression, texture synthesis,
and blending.
Traditional pyramid
The Gaussian Pyramid shown as a
signal processing
The Laplacian pyramid- the Laplacian pyramid,
which is a multi-resolution image representation
commonly used in image processing,
compression, and blending.
Wavelets
• Wavelets are filters that localize a signal in both space and frequency and are
defined over a hierarchy of scales.
• Wavelets provide a smooth way to decompose a signal into frequency
components without blocking and are closely related to pyramids.
• Wavelets are mathematical functions that decompose signals (such as
images) into different frequency components, while preserving spatial
information.
• They are commonly used in multi-resolution analysis (MRA), where an image is
broken down into different scales.
• A wavelet transform decomposes an image into:
• Low-frequency components (approximation): Represents the general structure of the
image.
• High-frequency components (details): Captures edges, textures, and fine details.
Comparison
Types of Wavelet Transforms
Two-dimensional wavelet
decomposition
One dimensional wavelet transform
(b) Lifted Wavelet Transform (LWT)
Lifted transform shown as a signal
processing diagram

This figure provides a graphical representation of the lifting scheme


for wavelet transforms. The lifting scheme is a computationally
efficient approach that splits the signal into odd and even samples
and then applies prediction and update steps.
Application: Image blending
• To create the blended image, each source image is first decomposed
into its own Laplacian pyramid.
• Each band is then multiplied by a smooth weighting function whose
extent is proportional to the pyramid level.
Geometric transformations
• These transformations change where pixels are located in the image
but do not change what the pixels represent.
• The image’s content stays the same, just its position, scale, rotation, or
perspective may change.
Types of Geometric Transformations
• Translation
• Shifts the entire image in the x and/or y direction.
• Example: Moving an object to the right or down.
• Scaling
• Increases or decreases the size of an image while preserving shape.
• Example: Zoom in or zoom out.
• Rotation
• Rotates the image by a given angle around a specific point (usually the center).
• Example: Turning an image clockwise or counter-clockwise.
• Shearing
• Distorts the shape by shifting pixels in one direction based on their position in another direction.
• Example: Making rectangles look like parallelograms.
• Affine Transformation
• A combination of translation, rotation, scaling, and shearing.
• Used heavily in mesh-based morphing for triangle-to-triangle warping.
• Perspective (Projective) Transformation
• Allows converging lines, simulating the effect of viewing an object from a different angle.
Difference from Geometric Transformations

• Point-wise transformations
• (like the one in the equation) adjust intensity values while keeping pixel
locations fixed.
• Geometric transformations
• modify the domain of the image, changing pixel positions while maintaining
intensity values.
Image Warping Concept
"Image warping involves modifying the domain of an image function
rather than its range.“

• Domain modification means changing the positions (coordinates) of


pixels rather than just changing pixel values.
• We are mapping points (x,y) in the source image to new points
(x’,y’)in the transformed image
• Core concept in morphing
Example
Parametric transformations
• Parametric transformations apply a global deformation to an image,
where the behavior of the transformation is controlled by a small
number of parameters.
Forward warping or forward
mapping
A fundamental theory in forward warping,
• Each pixel from the original image is mapped to a new
position in the transformed image.
• The new positions are often non-integer pixel coordinates,
interpolation methods must be used to determine pixel
Inverse Warping, a technique used to avoid
gaps and distortions in geometric transformations.
• Interpolation filters used in resampling for image transformations.
• The goal is to estimate pixel values at non-integer coordinates when
performing geometric transformations.
• Types of Interpolation Filters:
• Nearest Neighbor: Fastest, but results in blocky artifacts.
• Bilinear: Commonly used due to its speed, providing smoother results.
• Bicubic: Produces sharper and higher-quality images than bilinear
interpolation.
• Windowed Sinc (Lanczos): Preferred for high-quality resampling, especially
when preserving details.
MIP-mapping, a technique used in texture
mapping to improve rendering quality by reducing
aliasing.
Elliptical Weighted Average (EWA) filter, an advanced
filtering method used in image resampling and texture
mapping.
Anisotropic filtering
• An alternative to Elliptical Weighted Average (EWA) filtering is
anisotropic filtering, which is commonly implemented in graphics
hardware (GPUs) to improve texture quality at oblique viewing
angles.
Multi-pass transforms for image
warping while minimizing aliasing
and blurring.
Mesh-Based Morphing

• We use affine transformations to map each triangle from the source


image to the corresponding triangle in the target image.
• Each triangle transforms independently, and by blending the pixel
values inside those triangles at intermediate steps, we achieve a
smooth morph.
Mesh-based warping
• Consider, for example, changing • Curve the corners of the mouth
the appearance of a face from a upwards while leaving the rest of
frown to a smile . the face intact.
• To perform such a
transformation, different
amounts of motion are required
in different parts of the image.
General process for mesh
generation in morphing
1. Define Corresponding
Keypoints
• You already have these (the points
on both faces).
• These points define features like
eyes, nose, mouth corners, and
boundaries.
2. Add Boundary Points
• Make sure to include corner points
of the images and edges so that
the morph doesn’t distort the
outside frame.
• 3. Triangulate the Keypoints
(Delaunay Triangulation)
• Delaunay triangulation is
commonly used because it avoids
skinny triangles and gives more
stable warping.
Why Delaunay Triangulation?
• Avoids Skinny Triangles
• Skinny triangles can cause warping artifacts and instability during
interpolation.
• Maximizes Minimum Angles
• It ensures that the minimum angle of all the angles in the triangles is as large
as possible — making the mesh more uniform.
• Consistency Across Faces
• When morphing between two sets of points (like human and cheetah), you
want both images to have very similarly shaped triangle meshes.
• Delaunay tends to give consistent and stable structures that map nicely across
the two point sets.
• Draw the Mesh (Optional Visual
Check)
• It’s helpful to draw the mesh lines
over the image to verify the
keypoints are triangulated nicely.
Application: Feature-based
morphing

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