Unit-1:

Soil:
Types of soil, sample preparation, removal of contaminants, colour, molecular
particle size distribution, turbidity test, pH measurements, microscopic
examination, Physical examinations of soil evidence, Soil mechanics, Structure &
Composition, Baking, Compaction and Agro-soil additives, Instrumental analysis
of soil, Interpretation of soil evidence, Standard Operating Procedures for
examination, Discussion on important case studies of soil evidence
Forensic Engineering
Examination and analysis of the construction materials, Sampling, collection &
preservation of the materials with relevant information required for the
investigation, determination of adulterants by physical, chemical and instrumental
methods, investigation and observation of collapsed structures & causes of failure,
crash investigations.
From a general perspective, “soil” is a very broad term and refers to the loose layer of earth that
covers the surface of the planet. The soil is the part of the earth’s surface, which includes
disintegrated rock, humus, inorganic and organic materials. For soil to form from rocks, it takes
an average of 500 years or more. The soil is usually formed when rocks break up into their
constituent parts. When a range of different forces acts on the rocks, they break into smaller parts
to form the soil. These forces also include the impact of wind, water, and salts’ reaction.
There are three stages of soil:
•Solid soil
•Soil with air in the pores
•Soil with water in the pores
Various types of soil undergo diverse environmental pressures. Soil is mainly classified by its
texture, proportions and different forms of organic and mineral compositions.
Sandy Soil
The first type of soil is sand. It
consists of small particles of
weathered rock. Sandy soils are
one of the poorest types of soil
for growing plants because it has
very low nutrients and poor water
holding capacity, which makes it
hard for the plant’s roots to
absorb water. This type of soil is
very good for the drainage
system. Sandy soil is usually
formed by the breakdown or
fragmentation of rocks like
granite, limestone and quartz.
Silt Soil
Silt, which is known to have much
smaller particles compared to sandy
soil and is made up of rock and other
mineral particles, which are smaller
than sand and larger than clay. It is the
smooth and fine quality of the soil that
holds water better than sand. Silt is
easily transported by moving currents
and it is mainly found near the river,
lakes and other water bodies. The silt
soil is more fertile compared to the
other three types of soil. Therefore, it
is also used in agricultural practices to
improve soil fertility.
Clay Soil
Clay is the smallest particle among
the other two types of soil. The
particles in this soil are tightly
packed together with each other with
very little or no airspace. This soil
has very good water storage qualities
and makes it hard for moisture and
air to penetrate into it. It is very
sticky to the touch when wet but
smooth when dried. Clay is the
densest and heaviest type of soil
which does not drain well or provide
space for plant roots to flourish.
Loamy Soil
Loam is the fourth type of soil. It is a
combination of sand, silt and clay such that
the beneficial properties of each are included.
For instance, it has the ability to retain
moisture and nutrients; hence, it is more
suitable for farming. This soil is also referred
to as agricultural soil as it includes an
equilibrium of all three types of soil
materials, being sandy, clay, and silt, and it
also happens to have humus. Apart from
these, it also has higher calcium and pH
levels because of its inorganic origins.
Sample preparation
1. Mix thoroughly each sample of soil separately and collect about 100 gm of
each sample in porcelain dish/ watch glass. Dry for 30 minute in oven at
105oC and, then, cool it to room temperature. Place it in a desiccator and
marked as ‘representative sample.
Note:
1. If any solid lumps of soil, which are usually formed due to
absorption of moisture, are observed in sample, note it, prior any testing
because the presence of lumps will affect the results of testing. Some times, it
may confuse to form opinion.
2. All exhibits/samples containing soil should be kept in a dry (moisture
free) atmosphere i.e. at 30-35oC
Removal of contaminants
Possible contaminants:
Bigger particles
Inorganic and organic matter
Other evidences
Blood
Removal of Blood from Blood Stained Soil -Prepare a saline water of about 0.85% i.e.
dissolve 85mg of NaCl in100 ml of distilled water. Pour the blood stained soil sample in saline
water and stir for separation of blood. After few hours, decant the water and wash with distilled
water. After then, dry the sample in hot oven or on a hot plate at 105 oC and keep it in a
desiccator.
Apparatus: Stereo-microscope capable with high magnification range.
Method: Simple observations.
Take some soil sample on a clean microscopic slide/ glass plate and make its thin layer.
Place the slide/plate with soil on viewing stage of stereo-microscope and using different
magnifications take the microscopic observations of soil sample retained in each sieve
during the sample preparation separately in the following manner:
Observe the colour of soil particles after drying at 105 oC.
Observe the nature of particles as- geometrical shape, black particles (coal dust, black
minerals), red particles (brick dust, red ash, iron oxide or metal oxide), colourless particles
(quarts grains, colourless mineral fragments), green minerals, particles of vegetation (grass,
leaf fragments, seeds, moulds, fungi, micro-organism etc.
Find out the traces of foreign materials as -dung cloth fibres, glass fragments, hair, wooden
particles etc.
Particle Size Distributions-
Particle Size Distribution refers to the range of particle sizes present in a sample. It is crucial in various fields
like materials science, pharmaceuticals, and environmental monitoring. Analyzed through techniques such as
sieving, laser diffraction, or microscopy, understanding particle size distribution aids in predicting behaviors,
optimizing processes, and ensuring product quality. (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AM-NrQoRIYY)
Apparatus: Set of sieves (ranging in size from ASTM No.5 to 200), Motor-driven sieve shaker, Analytical
balance with an accuracy of ± 0.0002 gm, Standard Weights.
Methods:
Take an accurately weighed quantity (50g) of soil sample.
Arrange the set of sieve in numerical order and shake the soil in the same manner as mentioned in section
Collect the soil retained in the each sieve separately and reweigh accurately. Calculate its percentage as
given below:

Percentage of soil retained on sieve No.

(..)=
(Weight of soil retained on sieve)x100 /
(Total weight of soil taken).
Tabulate results as shown in following
table.
Introduction
Turbidity is the amount of cloudiness in the water. Turbidity is a principal physical characteristic of water and
is an expression of the optical property that causes light to be scattered and absorbed by particles and
molecules rather than transmitted in straight lines through a water sample. This can vary from a river full of
mud and silt where it would be impossible to see through the water (high turbidity), to a spring water which
appears to be completely clear (low turbidity).Turbidity can be caused by following:
 silt, sand and mud
 bacteria and other germs
 chemical precipitates
It is very important to measure the turbidity of domestic water supplies, as these supplies often undergo some
type of water treatment which can be affected by turbidity. For example, during the rainy season when mud
and silt are washed into rivers and streams, high turbidity can quickly block filters and stop them from
working effectively. High turbidity will also fill tanks and pipes with mud and silt, and can damage valves
and taps. Where chlorination of water is practiced, even quite low turbidity will prevent the chlorine killing
the germs in the water efficiently. Some treatment systems, such as sedimentors, coagulators and gravel
prefilters are designed to remove turbidity. It is important for operators of both large and small treatment
systems to know how well these systems are working. Measuring the turbidity of the water before and after
each part of the system can tell the operator where maintenance or cleaning is needed.
Measuring turbidity, Turbidity can be measured using either
➤ an electronic turbidity meter
➤ a turbidity tube. Turbidity is usually measured in
➤ nephelometric turbidity units (NTU)
 Jackson turbidity units (JTLJ), depending on the method used for measurement. The two units
are roughly equal.

Turbidimeters
An instrument for measuring the turbidity of water or other fluids is called turbidity meter.
An instrument for measuring and comparing the turbidity of liquids by viewing light through them and
determining how much light is cut off.
Advantages➤ very accurate➤ useful for measuring very low turbidities (less than 5 TU)
Disadvantages➤ high cost➤ need power supply (mains or battery) easily damaned.

Nephelometric principle of turbidity measurement

Generally most of the Portable and Bench type Turbidimeter operates on the nephelometric principle of
turbidity measurement.
The optical system includes a tungsten-filament lamp, a 90° detector to monitor scattered light and a transmitted
light detector. The instrument's microprocessor calculates the ratio of the signals from the 90° and transmitted
light detectors. This ratio technique corrects for interferences from color and/or light absorbing materials (such as
activated carbon) and compensates for fluctuations in lamp intensity, providing long-term calibration stability.
Soil pH (which is an expedite measure of soil reaction) is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity in the soil.
Mathematically, pH is the negative log10 of the activity of hydrogen ions (H+ ). Soil pH is important due
toits influence on several soil factors thataffect plant growth such as,the availability and dynamics of plant
nutrients and toxicants as well as some biological processes and soil structure.
Soils are referred to as being acid, neutral, or alkaline, depending on their pH, with 7 being neutral, below 7
acidic and above 7 alkaline. The pH range normally found in soils varies from 3 to 9.
Equipment
Colorimetric test kit available from nurseries (includes mixing stick, plate, dye, barium sulphate, pH colour
chart, instructions), teaspoon, recording sheet and pen. OR
Hand held pH meter, clear plastic jar with screw-on lid, distilled water, recording sheet and pen.
Method
1) Take three surface soil and three subsoil samples from each site (as described in points 1-5 the Taking
soil samples activity guide in this Vitinote series). Make sure surface soil and subsoil are not combined
so that they can be analysed separately.
2) Crush large aggregates and remove any gravel so that you have a fine mix to test. a) Using a
colorimetric test kit
• follow manufacturers instructions or if not available the general procedure is as follows.
• Put half a teaspoon of soil on the plate.
• Add enough dye to saturate the sample, mix well
• Sprinkle barium sulphate onto the soil mix and allow the colour to develop.
• Compare the sample colour with the pH colour chart.
• Record results.
OR
b) Using a portable pH meter
• Refer to instructions and calibrate your pH meter prior to each use.
• Unscrew jar lid and fill the lid level with soil. Do not compress the soil. Pour into jar.*
• Add 5 jar lids of distilled water and screw lid on tight. Shake for 5 minutes then allow to settle for 10
minutes.
• Rinse the pH meter electrodes in distilled water and dry gently with a tissue.
• Take a reading by immersing the electrode in the water above the settled soil as per manufacturer
instructions. Make sure the electrodes are fully covered. Take care to minimise electrode contact with soil
at the bottom of the jar.
• Gently stir the solution with the electrode while allowing the reading to stabilise. Try not to unsettle the
sediment. Record results as pHw.
• Rinse electrode before next reading.
Forensics laboratories routinely use microscopic analysis to characterize soil specimens. Microscopic
analysis is often used to identify and quantify the major mineral components of soil specimens, but the mix
of non-mineral components present in a specimen is often at least as important for establishing a
“fingerprint” of that specimen. For example, if a questioned soil specimen contains pollen or seeds, a
forensic botanist may be able to identify unambiguously the plant or plants that produced the pollen or
seeds. Known soil specimens taken from a vicinity where those plants are present can be compared against
the questioned specimen to establish with high certainty that the questioned specimen originated in the same
vicinity, particularly if the plant or mix of plants is relatively uncommon.
The initial microscopic examination is usually done with a stereo microscope at low magnification, typically
10X to 40X. This examination allows the forensic geologist to gain an overall impression of the soil
specimen, note the presence and abundance of various natural and artificial non-mineral components such as
seeds, bits of glass, plastic, or metal, and so on. The stereo microscope is used to view particles from as
small as 10 micrometers (µm = 0.01mm) to as large as the physical capacity of the microscope stage. The
eyepieces used for such examination often include a reticle that allows measurement of individual particles
in the specimen, or a grid that simplifies counting individual particles in the specimen to provide the data
necessary to determine particle size distribution.
microscopic examination is usually done with
a petrographic microscope, which is essentially a
modified version of a standard compound
biological microscope. A petrographic microscope
makes provision for examining specimens by
transmitted polarized light, and may also provide
such features as an electrically-heated stage, which
is used in determining the density and index of
refraction of individual soil particles.
Although it is not the ideal tool for the purpose, in
a home lab a standard compound microscope is a
reasonable substitute for the stereo and
petrographic microscopes used in professional
forensics labs. To examine our soil specimens, we
used our standard compound microscope with a
gooseneck lamp to provide incident light.
Things to be noted:
Particle size and distribution, particle structure,
particle color, non mineral matter
Physical examinations of soil evidence
1. Physical examinations of soil evidence
2. Soil color
3. Particle size distribution
4. Density gradient
5. Rock fragments
6. Sand particles
7. Clay minerals (ir spectroscopy, XRD)
8. Organic matter (HPLC, Py GC)
9. Biotic matter (plant fragments, plant opals, diatoms and microfossils, pollen and spores, microbes,)
Soil mechanics is a sub-discipline of soil science and geotechnical engineering that deals with
the mechanical properties and processes of soils. Generally speaking, soil mechanics
describes how the soil and its pore structure changes its shape or volume (or how it
“deforms”) due to stresses acting on the soil. There are a wide range of soil mechanics
applications in soil science, especially to predict and explain soil responses to the stresses
exerted by compaction and tillage. The application of soil mechanics to soil science also
extends to explore the physics of soil structure formation, shrinkage and swelling, erosion
resistance, restrictions to root growth and bioturbation, and reinforcement of soil by plant
roots.
Many soil mechanics concepts and methods used in soil science were initially developed to
solve geotechnical engineering problems. Key issues for geotechnical engineering have some
similarities to soil science. Building foundations, for instance, need to withstand the weight of
buildings, whereas agricultural soils may need to withstand the weight of machinery or
livestock. Evaluating geotechnical slope stability from its shear characteristics uses similar
theories used by soil scientists to measure soil stability and wheel slip.
Soil Composition
a) Mineral matter- geochemically classified on basis of their bonding
characteristics into five main groups:

b) Organic matter -It varies from 3.5 – 5% by weight in top soil. It contains partly decayed plant and animal residues
that are microbially synthesized contributing in maintenance and improvement of soil properties. It acts as storehouse
of plant nutrients. Five major classes of organic matter exist in soil namely humus, saccharides, fats, resins and
waxes, nitrogen organics and phosphorus containing organics:
(i) Humus- The formation by microbial degradation of plants and animals is called humification. The composition of
humic substances follows order: C: 45-55%,O :30-45%, H :3-6%, N :1-5%, S :1%. It possesses aromatic character
and are instrumental in decomposing soil minerals
(ii) Saccharides- It assist in stabilization of soil aggregates from major food sources.e.g.sugar,
cellulose, starches, gums.
(iii) Fats, resins and waxes: They are lipid extractable. The enzyme lipase degrades fats into glycerol
and fatty acids which further breaks down into carbon dioxide and water.Being phototoxic affects
soil properties by repelling water.
(iv) Nitrogen organics: In this, nitrogen is attached to humus, amino acids and amino sugars
(v) Phosphorus organics- It is the source of plant phosphate and occurs as phosphate esters,
phospholipids
Soil Water
It provides medium to plants for obtaining necessary nutrients. Itaids in maintenance of texture,
arrangement and compactness of soil particles. The total amount of water present in the soil is
called holard. Water that can be absorbed by plants ischesard while unabsorbed is called echard.

Soil Air
Its composition nearly similar to atmospheric air except CO2 level being high. Water clogging
between air spaces leads to anaerobic condition in which gases are unable to diffuse inwards. It is
essential for respiration of soil microorganisms and plants and enhances permeability of roots to
soil.
Soil Structure
The texture and structure of soil influences the amount of water held and hence behavior of any
soil. Soil bulk density with soil texture influences water infiltration rate.Clay soil has slow water
drainage than sand and volcanic soils. A loam soil with humus containing 34% of air and 66% of
water is considered best for majority of crops. Secondary particles called aggregates or peds
formed by the arrangement or grouping of primary particles (sand, clay, slit and organic matter)
is defined as soil structure.

Formation of soil structure

The process of soil formation occurs through physio-chemical process characterized by
aggregate formation, flocculation and swelling, shrinking of clay masses and biological process
where alleviation of aggregates by burrowing animals, binding action of plant roots and
production of organic glues by micro-organisms occurs.
Soil is known to contain air spaces and generally possess a loose texture
Soil possess varying shapes or types. Soils having no true structure are termed as structure
less. Sandy soil possess negligible attraction between sand grains. Deposits of sand in a sand dune are
called single
grain. Clay soil have large cohesive masses on textural basis and are thus massive in structure.
Structural units are called Peds. Peds can take several definite and repeatable shapes such as granular,
blocky, prism-like and platy.
•Granular structure -It is spherical in shape. It is easily separable into aggregates.Improper locking of
outer surface.Size- < 1 mm to 10 mm (in diameter). It is found in organic matter enriched surface
horizon (A- horizon). Its occurrence supported by prevalence of grassland vegetation and earthworm
activity.
•Block-like structure- It is cubic in shape. Size- <5 mm to 50 mm (in diameter). It does not occur
individually but derive their shape from surrounding peds. It is found in sub soil (B-horizon), It is
characterized by angular blocky-shape précised edges & diverse rectangular peds.
•Prism-like structure: The prismatic structure has flat/angular tops where strong association exists
between swelling type of clays. It occurs in subsurface B- horizon of soil profile while Columnar
structure is characterized by flat/ rounded tops. It occurs in soil horizon of arid and semi- arid region
in the regions of high sodium content.
•Platy- structure: It has horizontal oriented peds stacked over one another. Size- <1 mm to 10 mm (in
diameter). It is found in surface or sub surface horizon. Its structure is known to be inherited from the
soil’s parent material by action of water
Platy
Compaction and Agro-soil additives
Soil compaction occurs when soil particles are compressed, reducing pore spaces and negatively
impacting aeration, water infiltration, and nutrient movement within the soil. To address soil
compaction and enhance soil structure and fertility, specific soil nutrients and management practices
can be employed:
1. Organic Matter:
•Role: Organic matter improves soil structure, water retention, and nutrient availability. It encourages
microbial activity and the formation of stable aggregates, mitigating soil compaction.
•Application: Incorporate organic matter such as compost, crop residues, or manure into the soil to
improve its structure and fertility.
2. Calcium (Ca):
•Role: Calcium improves soil structure by promoting flocculation, reducing soil dispersion and
crusting. It can counteract the effects of soil compaction by encouraging aggregate stability.
•Application: Apply lime (calcium carbonate) to acidic soils to improve their structure and promote
beneficial soil conditions.
3. Magnesium (Mg):
•Role: Magnesium helps moderate soil structure and is crucial for plant growth. It can help reduce
soil compaction and improve overall soil health.
•Application: Apply dolomitic lime, which contains magnesium and calcium, to correct deficiencies
and improve soil structure.
4. Phosphorus (P), Nitrogen (N), and Potassium (K):
•Role: These macronutrients are crucial for plant growth and development. Proper nutrient
balance enhances root growth and can indirectly help reduce soil compaction by promoting
healthy, vigorous plants.
•Application: Apply balanced fertilizers to provide adequate P, N, and K according to the
specific needs of the crops being grown.
5. Sulfur (S):
•Role: Sulfur is essential for protein synthesis and overall plant health. Adequate sulfur levels
encourage root development and can indirectly help alleviate soil compaction.
•Application: Apply sulfur-containing fertilizers to correct deficiencies and improve soil
structure.
6. Micronutrients (Boron, Copper, Iron, Manganese, Zinc, etc.):
•Role: Micronutrients are essential for various plant functions and growth. They indirectly
support root development, aiding in the reduction of soil compaction.
•Application: Apply micronutrient-containing fertilizers or foliar sprays to address deficiencies
and promote healthy plant growth.
7. Crop Rotation and Cover Crops:
•Role: Crop rotation and cover cropping improve soil structure and fertility. Cover crops with
deep roots can help break up compacted layers and enhance soil health.
•Application: Integrate diverse crop rotations and cover crops into the farming system to
naturally mitigate soil compaction.
8. Tillage Practices:
•Role: Proper tillage practices, like deep ripping or subsoiling, can temporarily alleviate soil
compaction by breaking up compacted layers and improving aeration and root penetration.
•Application: Use appropriate tillage practices at the right time and depth to address soil
compaction issues.
9. Soil Amendments:
•Role: Specific soil amendments, such as gypsum, can help reduce soil compaction by enhancing
soil structure and flocculation.
•Application: Apply gypsum or other suitable soil amendments according to recommendations
to improve soil structure.
Ignition Test –
Apparatus: Analytical balance with an accuracy ± 0.0002 gm, Standard Weights, Alumina
crucible (porcelain dish may be used), Muffle furnace of high temperature range (1000 0 C).
Method:
Take an exactly weighed quantity (one gm) of soil sample from sieve fractions dried at 105 0 C
in a alumina crucible and keep it in a muffle furnace.
Heat it at temperature between 750-800oC for 1 hr. And then, cool it to room temperature.
Reweigh accurately and record the loss in weight and change in colour on ignition.
Calculate the percentage of loss on ignition to the nearest 0.1 and compare it with a control
soil sample.
Calculation:
Initial weight of soil sample taken = Wo g
Weight of soil sample after ignition = W1 g
Weight loss on ignition = (Wo- W1 ) g
Percent weight loss =(Wo- W1 )/ (W0 ) X 100

Density Distributions of Soil Particles

pH Measurement of Soil Sample:
Apparatus: pH-meter with standard electrolytes (buffers) solution of pH 7 and 4.
Method:
First, standardize the pH-meter with respect to buffers solution of pH 7 and 4 by using
the usual process as it is mentioned in its operating manual.
Dissolve weighed quantity i.e. one gm of soil sample in 100 ml distilled water and stir
thoroughly.
Filter it. Take the filtrate and measure the pH value. Adding 10 ml, 20ml, 30ml, 40ml,
and so on successively in solution, measure the pH values after each dilution and
observe their variations.
Similarly, measure the pH values for control soil sample in the same conditions and
compare with suspect soil sample.
Examination of soil using X-Ray Diffraction:
In many soil forensic case investigations, the amount of soil available for analyses may be
extremely small (e.g., thin coatings or single particles weighing of the order of 0.5 to 5 mg), which
may preclude using routine pressed powders for XRD analyses.
In such situations, it is essential to use an XRD that is fitted with a system for analysis that enables
small soil samples to be (i) deposited onto Si wafer low background holders or (ii) loaded into thin
glass capillaries for XRD analysis.
For analysis in a Gandolfi or Debye–Scherrer powder camera, extremely small specimens (e.g.,
single mineral particles and paint flakes) can be mounted on the end of glass fibers.
Consequently, X-ray methods are often the only ones that will permit further differentiation of
materials under laboratory conditions.
Reproducible quantitative XRD “will be a most valuable tool for the forensic examination of earth
materials.” For example, XRD patterns can also be likened to fingerprint comparisons between
soil samples and can be used to determine how closely soil samples relate to each other.
However, if the two soil samples, for example, contain only one crystalline component such as
quartz (i.e., silicon dioxide), which is very common in soils, the significance of the similarity and
its evidential value in terms of comparison criteria will be low.
If, however, the two soils contain four or five crystalline mineral components, some of them
unusual, then the degree of similarity will be considered to be high.
Beach sand and the murder of Father Heslin (1921)

In the United States, the small town of Colma, California was shocked when, on the night of August 2, 1921, the
parish priest, Father Patrick Heslin, was kidnapped. A ransom note was received, but no further contact was
made and the priest was assumed to have been murdered. In a remarkable bit of genius or luck, U.C. Berkeley
chemistry professor Edward Heinrich examined handwriting on the note and announced to the police that the
writer “had the hand” of a baker and decorator of cakes. Thus, when William Hightower reported to the police
that he had heard where the body of Father Heslin was buried, they were immediately suspicious that he might
know more than he admitted. Hightower was a master baker.

Heinrich examined the place on the California beach where Hightower indicated the body of Father Heslin
would be found. The body was found and the investigation also produced a number of objects of physical
evidence, such as boards from a tent floor. Heinrich studied grains of sand recovered from Hightower’s knife
and pronounced them similar to the sand on the beach where the body was found. In Hightower’s room a tent
was found, and the tent contained an abundance of sand, which, when studied, confirmed the results from the
knife. It appeared that Hightower had kidnapped and murdered Father Heslin and kept his body in the tent on
the beach for several days before burying it in the sand. Having done these things, he then reported to the police
having received information about the location of the body. Hightower’s trial resulted in conviction and he was
sentenced to life imprisonment at San Quentin Penitentiary.
Forensic Engineering
Examination and analysis of the construction materials
1 Introduction
2 Testing timber
• 2.1 Oven dry testing
• 2.2 Using a moisture meter
3 Testing bricks
• 3.1 Compressive strength test
• 3.2 Water absorption test
• 3.3 Efflorescense test
• 3.4 Hardness test
• 3.5 Size, shape and colour test
• 3.6 Soundness test
• 3.7 Structure test
•4 Testing sand
• 4.1 Bulking test
• 4.2 Silt test
•5 Testing concrete
• 5.1 Slump test
• 5.2 Test cubes
• 5.3 Rebound hammer test
• 5.4 Penetration test
• 5.5 Pull out test
• 5.6 Vibration test
Introduction
The testing of construction materials can be:
•Physical.
•Chemical.
•Verifying quantity.
•Checking for damage.
Testing may be necessary:
•As part of a quality control system.
•To verify that materials comply with the required specification.
•To achieve certification.
•To demonstrate compliance with legislative requirements, such as the building regulations.
Materials from suppliers will generally have been rigorously tested to the suppliers own standards,
will generally comply with the minimum recommendations of the appropriate Standards, and may
have third party accreditation to demonstrate their quality.
Therefore, when they arrive on site, the usual tests that are required are those that check the
quantity received against the amount stated on the delivery note, ensuring quality is as ordered,
and a visual inspection so that any damage can be flagged up straight away.
Timber can be tested on site for its moisture content.
The moisture content is usually expressed as a percentage
and calculated as the difference between the weight of the
‘wet’ timber and the weight of the same sample after
drying. For example, the moisture content of a piece of
timber weighing 500 g, and containing 250 g of water can
be calculated as follows:
(Weight of wet timber - weight of dry timber) / Oven-dry
weight x 100
(500 - 250) / 250 x 100 = 100%.
UK national product standards typically recommend that
at the time of installation the moisture content should be:
•18% in covered, generally unheated spaces.
•15% in covered, generally heated spaces.
•12% in internal conditions: in continuously heated
buildings.
•20% or more for external timber.
There are two common methods for measuring the
moisture content:
Oven dry testing
This involves drying timber to a relatively constant weight in a ventilated oven at 102-
105°C. It is possible to establish a very accurate original moisture content percentage
(%MC) by drying a piece of timber in an oven for several hours, and testing it at regular
intervals until its weight stops changing.
While this method is accurate, it is a slow process which can, if rushed, burn the timber or
render it unusable because of deformations. It is also necessary to have the right kind of
ventilated oven, which means it is impractical in many instances.
Using a moisture meter
Moisture meters for timber come in a variety of types but can be divided into two general
categories by the method of measurement:
•Pin-type meters: These use two or more electrodes to measure the moisture content using
electrical resistance. The more resistance to the electrical current the drier the timber, since
water is a conductor and timber is a natural insulator.
•Pinless moisture meters: These pass an electromagnetic wave through a sample using a
specialised scanning plate. It creates a reading of the average moisture content in the
scanning area.
Testing bricks
There are several different ways to test bricks, including:
Compressive strength test
A sample brick is placed on a compression testing machine and pressure is applied until it fails.
The ‘ultimate pressure’ level is recorded. Generally, five bricks are tested one at a time, with the
average ultimate pressure level being taken as the compressive strength of the bricks.
Water absorption test
Bricks are weighed in their normal dry condition and then immersed in fresh water for 24 hours.
They are then weighed again. The difference between the weights indicates the amount of water
that has been absorbed by the brick. The less water is absorbed the greater the quality. The
amount should not exceed 20% of the dry weight.
Efflorescense test
Efflorescence is a crystalline, salty deposit that can occur on the surfaces of bricks. It is generally
a white or off-white colour with a powdery appearance. To test for alkalis that may cause
efflorescense, a brick is immersed in fresh water for 24 hours and then left to dry.
If the whitish layer is not visible on the surface then it demonstrates an absence of alkalis in the
brick. The ranges that should be followed are:
•About 10% of brick surface: Acceptable range.
•About 50% of brick surface: Moderate range.
•Over 50% of brick surface: Severely affected by alkalis.
• Hardness test
The brick surface is scratched. If no impression is left then it is of good quality.
• Size, shape and colour test
Twenty bricks chosen at random are stacked lengthwise, width-wise and height-wise, and
inspected for uniformity of shape, size and colour.
• Soundness test
Two bricks are held in each hand and struck together. They should not break and a clear metallic
ringing sound should be made if they are good quality.
• Structure test
A sample brick is broken and carefully inspected. If it is good quality there should be no flows,
cracks or holes on the broken face.
Testing sand
• Bulking test
Sand can be tested when batching concrete by volume. A damp sand sample is placed in a straight-sided
container, filling to around two-thirds. A rule is inserted to measure the depth of the damp sand (e.g. 150
mm). The damp sand sample is then removed from the container and set aside. Clean water is poured to
half fill the container. The sand is then placed in the water in two halves and tamped down with a rod to
remove any air. The rule is inserted to measure the depth of the saturated sand (e.g. 124 mm).
The percentage of bulking can then be calculated as follows:
Bulking = difference in height between damp and saturated sand / depth of saturated sand
Bulking = (150 - 124) / 124 x 100 = 21%
Therefore, the volume of sand should be increased by 21% over that quoted in the specification.
• Silt test
This test is used to measure the cleanliness of a sand sample by establishing the percentage of silt present.
This is important as too much silt will weaken the concrete.
A salt water solution of 5 ml salt to 500 ml water is poured to 50 ml in a measuring cylinder. The sand
sample is then added up to the 50 ml mark. More salt water solution is poured up to 150 ml before
shaking the cylinder well.
The mixture should be left to stand for 3 hours before measuring the height of the silt which will have
settled on top of the layer of sand. The height of the silt layer should not be more than 6 ml, or 6% of the
sand sample height.
Testing concrete
• Slump test
This can be used to ensure that subsequent
concrete mixes are of the same consistency.
A steel slump cone should be filled to a
quarter depth and tamped 25 times with a
tamping rod. The filling and tamping should
be repeated three more times until the cone
is full and the top levelled off. The cone is
then removed and the resulting slump
measured. If the mix is consistent, the slump
should remain the same for all the samples
that are tested. The usual slump
specification is 50-75 mm.
• Test cubes
These can be made and crushed in a laboratory to check that
the cured concrete has obtained the required design strength.
A standard 150 x 150 x 150 mm steel test cube mould is
used, thinly coated inside with mould oil. A concrete sample
is taken from the discharge outlet of mixer or from the
point of placing on site. The mould is filled in three equal
layers (50 mm each), each layer being well tamped with at
least 35 strokes.
The sample cube is covered with a damp sack or other
covering and left for 24 hours at a temperature of 4.4-21°C.
The sample is then removed from the mould and stored in
water at a temperature 10-21°C until required for testing.
The cubes are generally tested at 7 and 28 days, using a
calibrated compression machine. The cubes are tested on the
face perpendicular to the casting face. A constant
progressing force is exerted until the cubes fail. The reading
at the failure is the maximum compressive strength of the
concrete.
• Rebound hammer test
When the plunger of rebound hammer is pressed against the surface of the concrete, the spring-
controlled mass rebounds and the extent of such rebound depends upon the surface hardness of
concrete. The surface hardness and therefore the rebound is taken to be related to the compressive
strength of the concrete.
Penetration test
Also known as the Windsor probe test, this is a measure of the penetration of a steel alloy rod, fired
by a predetermined amount of energy, into a concrete sample. The depth of penetration is inversely
proportional to the concrete’s compressive strength.
• Pull out test
A number of circular bars of steel with enlarged ends are cast into a concrete sample. At the
appropriate time, the bar and a piece of concrete are pulled out using a tension jack. A pullout or
pull-off test is a type of material evaluation test designed to quantify the strength of a concrete
sample and its relationship to the fastener engagement approach. This method is commonly used in
construction to assess the quality of geosynthetic materials and their respective resilience.
• Vibration test
This uses an ultrasonic pulse to measure vibrations through a concrete sample. The readings can then
be used to correlate compressive strength.
Introduction to structure failure
Building failure occurs when the building loses its ability to perform its intended
(design) function. Hence, building failure can be categorized into two broad groups
of physical (structural) failures (which result in the loss of certain characteristics,
e.g., strength) and performance failure (which means a reduction in function below
an established acceptable limit)
General causes of failure
Failure of a structure can occur from many types of
problems, mostly unique to the types of structure or to the
various industries.
• Due to size, shape, or the choice of material, the
structure is not strong and tough enough to support the
load. Failure can occur when the overstressed
construction reaches a critical stress level.
• Instability, whether due to geometry, design or material
choice, causing the structure to fail from fatigue or
corrosion. These type of failure often occur at stress
points, such as squared corners or from bolt holes being
too close to the material’s edge, causing cracks to slowly
form and then progress through cyclic loading
conditions.
• Manufacturing errors, may be due to improper selection
of materials, incorrect sizing, improper heat treatment,
failure to adhere to the design, or shoddy workmanship.
Man made v/s natural causes
Most of the structural failures are associated with materials and are the consequence of human blunder
involving a lack of know-how about materials or the combination of contrary materials.There are
structural failures that can be endorsed to irregularity in materials. Although too much reliance is given
on modern structural materials yet the manufacturing or production faults may exist even in the most
dependable structural materials, such as standard structural steel or centrally blended concrete.
V/S
One of the major natural factors that result into building collapse is rainfall; others may include
temperature, pressure, etc.When there is a heavy downpour of rain, there is a possibility that one or
more buildings(completed or uncompleted), somewhere, would cave in . The fact remain that this is a
natural factor that cannot be stopped, buildings therefore need to be constructed adequately bearing in
mind such uncontrollable factors.
City specific reasons

• Property prices and rent in Mumbai are among the highest in Asia. Many citizens
are forced to live in old, dilapidated properties in a land-scarce city.
• And between 2008 and 2012, there were 100 building collapses in the city in which
53 people died and 103 others were injured, authorities say.
• The gradual decay of buildings is most commonly a result of the lack of periodic
maintenance, especially when the buildings fall under the Rent Control Act.
• Building collapses are common in India due to
substandard materials
inadequate supervision in constructing multistorey structures.
The incidents have highlighted shoddy construction and violations of the building
code, amid burgeoning demand for housing in many parts of India and endemic
corruption.
• Adjoining is a timeline of building collapses in Mumbai in 2013, published in The
DNA newspaper, dated 28.09.2013
Case study: collapse due to human error
'Canacona building collapse: Weak columns, strong beams
reason for disaster': January 8, 2014
The under-construction five-storey building crashed killing
18 workers, injuring 14 more.
Poor workmanship, lack of soil analysis and substandard
quality of construction materials may have been largely
responsible for the tragic collapse of this building in Ruby
residency in Chaudi, Canacona.
The debris of the collapsed building shows some beams and
slabs sitting on top of each, but not a single column."All the
columns have been reduced to powder at the site," a source
said. It could be a case of weak columns and strong beams.
Sources said m20 grade of concrete appears to have been
used for the columns. "It is okay for the slabs but not
columns and m25 grade would have been better," another
source pointed out.