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Relational_Model

The document discusses the relational model of databases, highlighting its importance as the most widely used model and the basis for SQL, which includes data definition and manipulation languages. It explains key concepts such as relations, primary keys, foreign keys, and integrity constraints, emphasizing their roles in maintaining data integrity and relationships between tables. Additionally, it covers querying capabilities in SQL, including how to create, modify, and retrieve data from relational databases.

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Sri Hari Ram
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7 views

Relational_Model

The document discusses the relational model of databases, highlighting its importance as the most widely used model and the basis for SQL, which includes data definition and manipulation languages. It explains key concepts such as relations, primary keys, foreign keys, and integrity constraints, emphasizing their roles in maintaining data integrity and relationships between tables. Additionally, it covers querying capabilities in SQL, including how to create, modify, and retrieve data from relational databases.

Uploaded by

Sri Hari Ram
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PPT, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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The Relational Model

Data Models
• DBMS models real world
• Data Model is link
between user’s view of
the world and bits
stored in computer
Student(sid:Students(sid: string, name:
string, login: string, age: integer, gpa:real)

1010
1111
01
Why Study the Relational
Model?
• Most widely used model.
– Vendors: IBM, Microsoft, Oracle, Sybase, etc.
• “Legacy systems” in older models
– e.g., IBM’s IMS
• Object-oriented concepts have recently merged in
– object-relational model
• IBM DB2, Oracle 9i, IBM Informix

– Based on POSTGRES research project at Berkeley


• Postgres still represents the cutting edge on some of
these features!
Relational Database: Definitions
• Relational database: a set of relations.
• Relation: made up of 2 parts:
– Instance : a table, with rows and columns.
• #rows = cardinality
– Schema : specifies name of relation, plus name and
type of each column.
• E.g. Students(sid: string, name: string, login: string,
age: integer, gpa: real)
• #fields = degree / arity
• Can think of a relation as a set of rows or tuples.
– i.e., all rows are distinct
Example Instance of Students
Relation

sid name login age gpa


53666 Jones jones@cs 18 3.4
53688 Smith smith@eecs 18 3.2
53650 Smith smith@math 19 3.8

• Cardinality = 3, arity = 5 , all rows distinct


• Do all values in each column of a relation instance
have to be distinct?
SQL - A language for Relational
DBs
• SQL: standard language
• Data Definition Language (DDL)
– create, modify, delete relations
– specify constraints
– administer users, security, etc.
• Data Manipulation Language (DML)
– Specify queries to find tuples that satisfy
criteria
– add, modify, remove tuples
SQL Overview
• CREATE TABLE <name> ( <field> <domain>, … )

• INSERT INTO <name> (<field names>)


VALUES (<field values>)

• DELETE FROM <name>


WHERE <condition>

• UPDATE <name>
SET <field name> = <value>
WHERE <condition>

• SELECT <fields>
FROM <name>
WHERE <condition>
Creating Relations in SQL
• Creates the Students relation. CREATE TABLE Students
• Note: the type (domain) of (sid CHAR(20),
name CHAR(20),
each field is specified, and login CHAR(10),
enforced by the DBMS age INTEGER,
– whenever tuples are added or gpa FLOAT)
modified.
• Another example: the Enrolled
table holds information aboutCREATE TABLE Enrolled
courses students take. (sid CHAR(20),
cid CHAR(20),
grade CHAR(2))
Adding and Deleting Tuples
• Can insert a single tuple using:

INSERT INTO Students (sid, name, login, age, gpa)


VALUES (‘53688’, ‘Smith’, ‘smith@ee’, 18, 3.2)

• Can delete all tuples satisfying some condition (e.g.,


name = Smith):

DELETE
FROM Students S
WHERE S.name = ‘Smith’

 Powerful variants of these commands are availabl


more later!
Keys

• Keys are a way to associate tuples in


different relations
• Keys are one form of integrity constraint (IC)

Enrolled
sid cid grade Students
sid name login age gpa
53666 Carnatic101 C
53666 Reggae203 B 53666 Jones jones@cs 18 3.4
53650 Topology112 A 53688 Smith smith@eecs 18 3.2
53666 History105 B 53650 Smith smith@math 19 3.8
Primary Keys

• A set of fields is a superkey if:


– No two distinct tuples can have same values in all key fields
• A set of fields is a key for a relation if :
– It is a superkey
– No subset of the fields is a superkey
• >1 key for a relation?
– one of the keys is chosen (by DBA) to be the primary key.
• E.g.
– sid is a key for Students.
– What about name?
– The set {sid, gpa} is a superkey.
Primary and Candidate Keys in
• SQL
Possibly many candidate keys (specified using
UNIQUE), one of which is chosen as the primary
key.
• “For a given student and course, CREATE TABLE Enrolled
(sid CHAR(20)
there is a single grade.” cid CHAR(20),
vs. grade CHAR(2),
“Students can take only one course, PRIMARY KEY (sid,cid))
and receive a single grade for that
course; further, no two students in a
course receive the same grade.” CREATE TABLE Enrolled
(sid CHAR(20)
• Used carelessly, an IC can prevent cid CHAR(20),
the storage of database instances grade CHAR(2),
that should arise in practice! PRIMARY KEY (sid),
UNIQUE (cid, grade))
Foreign Keys

• A Foreign Key is a field whose values are


keys in another relation.

Enrolled
sid cid grade Students
sid name login age gpa
53666 Carnatic101 C
53666 Reggae203 B 53666 Jones jones@cs 18 3.4
53650 Topology112 A 53688 Smith smith@eecs 18 3.2
53666 History105 B 53650 Smith smith@math 19 3.8
Foreign Keys, Referential
Integrity
• Foreign key : Set of fields in one relation that
is used to `refer’ to a tuple in another
relation.
– Must correspond to primary key of the second
relation.
– Like a `logical pointer’.
• E.g. sid is a foreign key referring to Students:
– Enrolled(sid: string, cid: string, grade: string)
– If all foreign key constraints are enforced,
referential integrity is achieved (i.e., no dangling
references.)
Foreign Keys in SQL
• Only students listed in the Students relation
should be allowed to enroll for courses.
CREATE TABLE Enrolled
(sid CHAR(20), cid CHAR(20), grade CHAR(2),
PRIMARY KEY (sid,cid),
FOREIGN KEY (sid) REFERENCES Students )

Enrolled
sid cid grade Students
sid name login age gpa
53666 Carnatic101 C
53666 Reggae203 B 53666 Jones jones@cs 18 3.4
53650 Topology112 A 53688 Smith smith@eecs 18 3.2
53666 History105 B 53650 Smith smith@math 19 3.8
Integrity Constraints (ICs)
• IC: condition that must be true for any
instance of the database; e.g., domain
constraints.
– ICs are specified when schema is defined.
– ICs are checked when relations are modified.
• A legal instance of a relation is one that
satisfies all specified ICs.
– DBMS should not allow illegal instances.
• If the DBMS checks ICs, stored data is
more faithful to real-world meaning.
– Avoids data entry errors, too!
Where do ICs Come From?
• ICs are based upon the semantics of the real-
world that is being described in the database
relations.
• We can check a database instance to see if an IC
is violated, but we can NEVER infer that an IC is
true by looking at an instance.
– An IC is a statement about all possible instances!
– From example, we know name is not a key, but the
assertion that sid is a key is given to us.
• Key and foreign key ICs are the most common;
more general ICs supported too.
Enrolled
sid cid grade Students
sid name login age gpa
53666 Carnatic101 C
53666 Reggae203 B 53666 Jones jones@cs 18 3.4
53650 Topology112 A 53688 Smith smith@eecs 18 3.2
53666 History105 B 53650 Smith smith@math 19 3.8

Enforcing Referential Integrity


• Remember Students and Enrolled; sid in Enrolled
is a foreign key that references Students.
• What should be done if an Enrolled tuple with a
non-existent student id is inserted?
– (Reject it!)
• What should be done if a Students tuple is deleted?
– Also delete all Enrolled tuples that refer to it.
– Disallow deletion of a Students tuple that is referred to.
– Set sid in Enrolled tuples that refer to it to a default sid.
– (In SQL, also: Set sid in Enrolled tuples that refer to it
to a special value null, denoting `unknown’ or
`inapplicable’.)
• Similar if primary key of Students tuple is updated.
Relational Query Languages

• A major strength of the relational model:


supports simple, powerful querying of data.
• Queries can be written intuitively, and the
DBMS is responsible for efficient evaluation.
– The key: precise semantics for relational
queries.
– Allows the optimizer to extensively re-order
operations, and still ensure that the answer
does not change.
The SQL Query Language

• The most widely used relational query


language.
– Current std is SQL99; SQL92 is a basic
subset
SELECT
• To find*all 18 year old
sid students,
name we can
login age gpa
FROM Students S
write: 53666 Jones jones@cs 18 3.4
WHERE S.age=18
53688 Smith smith@ee 18 3.2

• To find just names and logins, replace the first lin


SELECT S.name, S.login
Querying Multiple Relations
• What does the following query compute?
SELECT S.name, E.cid
FROM Students S, Enrolled E
WHERE S.sid=E.sid AND E.grade='A'

Given the following sid cid grade


instance of Enrolled 53831 Carnatic101 C
53831 Reggae203 B
53650 Topology112 A
53666 History105 B

S.name E.cid
we get:
Smith Topology112
Semantics of a Query

• A conceptual evaluation method for the


previous query:
1. do FROM clause: compute cross-product of
Students and Enrolled
2. do WHERE clause: Check conditions, discard tuples
that fail
3. do SELECT clause: Delete unwanted fields
• Remember, this is conceptual. Actual
evaluation will be much more efficient, but
must produce the same answers.
Cross-product of Students and Enrolled Instances

S.sid S.name S.login S.age S.gpa E.sid E.cid E.grade


53666 Jones jones@cs 18 3.4 53831 Carnatic101 C
53666 Jones jones@cs 18 3.4 53832 Reggae203 B
53666 Jones jones@cs 18 3.4 53650 Topology112 A
53666 Jones jones@cs 18 3.4 53666 History105 B
53688 Smith smith@ee 18 3.2 53831 Carnatic101 C
53688 Smith smith@ee 18 3.2 53831 Reggae203 B
53688 Smith smith@ee 18 3.2 53650 Topology112 A
53688 Smith smith@ee 18 3.2 53666 History105 B
53650 Smith smith@math 19 3.8 53831 Carnatic101 C
53650 Smith smith@math 19 3.8 53831 Reggae203 B
53650 Smith smith@math 19 3.8 53650 Topology112 A
53650 Smith smith@math 19 3.8 53666 History105 B

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