Chapter 2 : Database System Concepts and Architecture

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Chapter 2 Topics

• Chapter 2. Database System Concepts and Architecture

• Data Models, Schemas and Instances
• Three-Schema Architecture and Data Independence
• Database Languages and Interfaces
• The Database System Environment
• Centralized and Client/Server Architectures for DBMSs
• Classification of Database Management Systems
• Functions of DBMS

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Data Models

Data models define how the logical structure of a database is

modeled.
Data Models are fundamental entities to introduce abstraction
in a DBMS.
Data models define how data is connected to each other and
how they are processed and stored inside the system.

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Data Models..
• Data Model: a set of concepts to describe the structure of a
database, and certain constraints that the database should obey.
• A data model is a description of the way that data is stored in a
database.
• Data model helps to understand the relationship between entities
and to create the most effective structure to hold data.
• A set of primitives for defining the structure of a database.
• A set of operations for specifying retrieval and updates on a database
• Data Model is a collection of tools or concepts for describing
– Data
– Data relationships
– Data semantics
– Data constraints
• The main purpose of Data Model is to represent the data in an
understandable way.
Categories of database models include:
– Object-based
– Record-based
– Physical
Record-based Data Models
• Consist of a number of fixed format records. Each record type
defines a fixed number of fields, Each field is typically of a fixed
length. The following are examples of this database
model category.

– Hierarchical Database Model

– Network Database Model

– Relational Database Model

Hierarchical model
• In hierarchical model, data is organized into a tree like

structure with each record is having one parent record and

many children.

• Records are linked together like an organizational chart

• Each record type has only one owner

• The main drawback of this model is that, it can have only one

to many relationships between nodes.

Example of Hierarchical Model
• Lets say we have few students and few courses and a
course can be assigned to a single student only,
however a student take any number of courses so
this relationship becomes one to many.
Example of Hierarchical Model (Cont..)
Hierarchical model (Cont..)

• The simplest database model

• Hierarchical upside-down tree structure. The tree may be of

arbitrary depth

• Record type is referred to as node or segment.

• Each record contain multiple fields, where each field may contain

either data values like integer, real, text or a pointer to a record.

• The pointer is not allowed to form a cycle.

Hierarchical model (Cont..)
• The top node is the root node

• A parent node can have more than one child node

• A child node can only have one parent node

• The relationship between parent and child is one-to-many

and one-to-one

• Relation is established by creating physical link between

stored records (each is stored with a predefined access path

to other records)
 Advantages

• Hierarchical Model is simple to construct

• Conceptual simplicity – easy to understand the model layout

• Data independence (a change in a data type will be automatically

cascaded throughout the database by the DBMS, thereby eliminating
the need to make changes in the program segments that reference the
changes data type)

• Database integrity – always a link between parent and child

• Efficiency – very efficient when it contains a large volume of data in

1:M relationships and whose relationships are fixed over time
Disadvantages
 Complex implementation – detailed knowledge of the
physical data storage characteristics is required by the
designers and programmers
 Difficult to manage – relocation of segments requires
application changes
 Lacks structural independence
 Complex applications programming and use
 programmers and end users must know precisely how
the data are physically distributed within the database
 Lack of standards – no standard DDL and no DML
Disadvantages (Cont…)
• Implementation limitations – difficult to support
M:N relationships
• a child node in the tree cannot have more than one
parent. So if the same account is associated with 2
customers (e.g. a husband and wife have a joint account
and also separate accounts), we cannot link the one
account record to 2 different customer records. But we
can have the account record appearing in two tree
branches. This can lead to duplicated data – and
inconsistent data, if the account is not updated in all the
Fundamentals Database Systems 14
branches.
Network Model
• The network database model was created to solve the
shortcomings of the hierarchical database model.
• In this type of model, a child can be linked to multiple parents,
a feature that was not supported by the hierarchical data
model.
• The parent nodes are known as owners and the child nodes
are called members
Network Model (Cont..)
• Network Model is same as hierarchical model except that it
has graph-like structure rather than a tree-based structure.
• Unlike hierarchical model, this model allows each record to
have more than one parent record.
• the Network Database Model to allow multiple records to be
linked to the same owner file creating a many-to-many
relationship rather than a one-to-many.
• Represents complex data relationships more effectively than
the hierarchical model
Network Model (Cont..)
• Like hierarchical model network model is a collection of physically

linked records.

• Collection of records in N:M relationships

– Composed of at least two record types

• Owner

– Equivalent to the hierarchical model’s parent

• Member

– Equivalent to the hierarchical model’s child

– A record can appear as a member in more than one set

• The network data model can be represented
as −
Example of Network Data Model

Netw ork Data Model

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Advantages
• Conceptual simplicity

• Handles more relationship types

• Data access flexibility – no need for a preorder traversal

• Promotes database integrity – must first define the owner and

then the member record

• Data independence

• Network Model is able to model complex relationships and rep

resents semantics Fundamentals Database Systems 20

Disadvantages
• System complexity
• Navigational and procedural nature of processing.
• Database contains a complex array of pointers that thread
through a set of records.
• Little scope for automated "query optimization”
 Relational Model
• Developed by Dr. Edgar Frank Codd in 1970 (famous paper,
'A Relational Model for Large Shared Data Banks').
• Terminologies originates from the branch of mathematics
called set theory and relational algebra.
• Can define more flexible and complex relationship.

• Viewed as a collection of tables called “Relations”

equivalent to collection of record types.
• Relation: Two dimensional table.
Fundamentals Database Systems 22
Relational Model (Cont..)
• Stores information or data in the form of tables rows and
columns.
• A row of the table is called tuple equivalent to record.
• A column of a table is called attribute equivalent to fields.
• Data value is the value of the Attribute.
• Records are related by the data stored jointly in the fields of
records in two tables or files.
• The related tables contain information that creates the
relation.
Relational Model (Cont..)
• No physical consideration of the storage is required by the user.

• Many tables are merged together to come up with a new

virtual view of the relationship.
• The relational data model is implemented through a very
sophisticated relational database management system
(RDBMS).
Relational Model (Cont..)
Relational Model (Cont..)
• The RDBMS manages all of the physical details, while the user
sees the relational database as a collection of tables in which
data are stored.
• The user can manipulate and query the data in a way that
seems intuitive and logical.
• The rows represent records (collections of information about
separate items).

Fundamentals Database Systems 26

Relational Model (Cont..)

• The columns represent fields (particular attributes of a record).

• Conducts searches by using data in specified columns of one

table to find additional data in another table.

• In conducting searches, a relational database model matches

information from a field in one table with information in a

corresponding field of another table to produce a third table

that combines requested data from both tables.

Relational Model (Cont..)
Advantages
• Structural independence – changes in the relational data
structure do not affect the DBMS’s data access in any way
• Improved conceptual simplicity by concentrating on the logical
view
• Easier database design, implementation, management, and use

• Ad hoc query capability - SQL

• Powerful database management system

Fundamentals Database Systems 29

Disadvantages

• Substantial hardware and system software overhead

• Can facilitate poor design and implementation

Fundamentals Database Systems 30

Object Oriented Model

• Semantic data model (SOM) developed by Hammer and

McLeod in 1981

• Modeled both data and their relationships in a single

structure known as an object

• Basis of object oriented data model (OODM)

• OODM becomes the basis for the object oriented database

management system (OODBMS)
Object Oriented Model (Cont..)

• Object: abstraction of a real-world entity.

• Attributes describe the properties of an object.

• Objects that share similar characteristics are

grouped in classes.

• Classes are organized in a class hierarchy.

• Inheritance is the ability of an object within the class

hierarchy to inherit the attributes and methods of
classes above it.
Advantages
• -Adds semantic content
• -Visual presentation includes semantic content
• -Database integrity
• -Both structural and data independence
Disadvantages
• -Slow pace of OODM standards development
• -Complex navigational data access
• --High system overhead slows transactions
• -Lack of market penetration
Object relational
• An Object relational model is a combination of a Object oriented
database model and a Relational database model.
• So, it supports objects, classes, inheritance etc. just like Object
Oriented models and has support for data types, tabular
structures etc. like Relational data model.
Object relational (Cont..(

• One of the major goals of Object relational data model is to

close the gap between relational databases and the object
oriented practices frequently used in many programming
languages such as C++, C#, Java etc.
Object relational (Cont..(
Advantages
Inheritance
• The Object Relational data model allows its users to inherit
objects, tables etc. so that they can extend their functionality.
Inherited objects contains new attributes as well as the
attributes that were inherited.
Complex Data Types
• Complex data types can be formed using existing data types.
This is useful in Object relational data model as complex data
types allow better manipulation of the data.
Advantages (Cont..)

Extensibility

• The functionality of the system can be extended in Object relational data

model. This can be achieved using complex data types as well as

advanced concepts of object oriented model such as inheritance.

Disadvantages

• The object relational data model can get quite complicated and difficult

to handle at times as it is a combination of the Object oriented data

model and Relational data model and utilizes the functionalities of both

of them.
Schemas versus Instances

• Database Schema: The description of the database. It rarely

changes.

– Includes descriptions of the database structure, data types,

and the constraints on the database.

• Database Instance (snapshot): The actual data stored in a

database at a particular moment in time. Changes rapidly.

• The concepts of Schema & Instances corresponds to Types &

Values in programming languages, respectively.
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 Example
Schema

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Instance

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Architecture of DBMS
• The Database Management System (DBMS) architecture
shows how data in the database is viewed by the users.
It is not concerned about how the data are handled and
processed by the DBMS.

• It helps in implementation, design, and maintenance of

a database to store and organize information for
companies

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The Three-Level ANSI-SPARC Architecture

• ANSI-SPARC stands for (American National Standards

Institute, Standards Planning And Requirements
Committee) is an abstract design standard for a Database
Management System (DBMS)

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• The three-schema architecture divides the database into three-
level used to create a separation between the physical database
and the user application.
• In simple terms, this architecture hides the details of physical
storage from the user.

• The database administrator (DBA) responsible is to change the

structure of database storage without affecting the user’s view. It
deals with the data, the relationship between them and the
different access methods implemented on the database. The
logical design of database is called a schema
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• This architecture contains three layers of database management
system, which are as follows −

• External level

• Conceptual level

• Internal level

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ANSI-SPARC Three-Level Architecture

How the
user is
viewing the
data
What data is stored

How data is stored

Where is it stored

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Objectives of Three-Level Architecture
• All users should be able to access same data.
• A user’s view is immune to changes made in other views.
• Users should not need to know physical database storage
details.
• DBA should be able to change database storage structures
without affecting the users’ views.

• Internal structure of database should be unaffected by

changes to physical aspects of storage.

• DBA should be able to change conceptual structure of

database without affecting all users.
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ANSI-SPARC Three-Level Architecture
• External Level/View Level

– Users’ view of the database.

– Describes that part of database that is relevant to a particular

user.
– This is the highest level of database abstraction.

– It includes a number of external schemas or user views.

– This level provides different views of the same database for a

specific user or a group of users.
– An external view provides a powerful and flexible security
mechanism by hiding the parts of the database from a particular
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user.
Conceptual Level
• This level describes the structure of the whole database. It acts
as a middle layer between the physical storage and user view. It
explains what data to be stored in the database, what the data
types are, and what relationship exists among those data. There
is only one conceptual schema per database.
• Community view of the database.
• Describes what data is stored in database and relationships
among the data
• It represents the following −
 All the entities, attributes and their relationships.
 The constraints on the data.
 Security and integrity information 49
• This level describes the structure of the whole database. It
acts as a middle layer between the physical storage and user
view.
• It explains what data to be stored in the database, what the
data types are, and what relationship exists among those
data. There is only one conceptual schema per database.

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Internal or Physical level

• This is the lowest level of database abstraction. It describes how the

data is stored in the database and provides the methods to access data

from the database. It allows viewing the physical representation of the

database on the computer system.

• The internal schema not only defines different stored record types, but

also specifies what indices exist, how stored fields are represented.

• Physical representation of the database on the computer.

• Describes how the data is stored in the database.

• It covers the data structure and file organization used to

store the data on storage devices.
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Differences between Three Levels

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Schemas, Mappings, and Instances

• Mapping is the process of transforming requests and results

between the Internal, Conceptual & External levels.
o Programs refer to an external schema, and are mapped by
the DBMS to the internal schema for execution.
o Data extracted from the internal DBMS level is reformatted
to match the user’s external view.
Two types of mapping:
• External / Conceptual mapping.
• Conceptual / Internal mapping.
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 Data Independence

• Means : upper levels are unaffected by changes to lower

levels.
• Two kinds of data independence: logical and physical.

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 Data Independence

• Logical Data Independence

– Refers to immunity of external schemas to changes in
conceptual schema.
– Conceptual schema changes (e.g. addition/removal of
entities).
– Should not require changes to external schema or

rewrites of application programs.

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 Data Independence

• Physical Data Independence

– Refers to immunity of conceptual schema to changes in
the internal schema.
– Internal schema changes (e.g. using different file
organizations, storage structures/devices).
– Should not require change to conceptual or external

schemas.

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Data Independence and the ANSI-SPARC Three-Level
Architecture

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Database Languages and Interfaces
• Data Definition Language (DDL)
– Allows the DBA or user to describe and name entities, attributes, and
relationships required for the application together with any associated
integrity and security constraints.
– DDL is a descriptive language for defining and constructing the
database.
– Allows users to specify the data types and structures and the
constraints on the data to be stored in the DB.
– DDL compiler generates the meta-data (describes objects in database
and make it easier for manipulation) that is stored in the data
dictionary. 58
• The DDL used to define and change the conceptual schema of the

database

• The DDL is used to name entities, attributes and relationships to

together with any related constraint and security constraints

• The following are DDL command:

– CREATE
– ALTER
DROP
– TRANCATE
RENAME|

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 Database Languages
• Data Manipulation Language (DML)
• Provides basic data manipulation operations on data held in the database.

• DML is a language for retrieving and updating (insert, delete, & modify) the data in
the DB. It is called Query language.
• Types of DML:
• Low level or Procedural Language: user specifies what data is required and how to
get those data(allows user to tell system exactly how to manipulate data.) It is
embedded in a high-level languages.
• High level or Nonprocedural Language: user specifies what data is required without
specifying how to get those data(allows user to state what data is needed rather than
how it is to be retrieved.). It is called declarative languages, such as SQL.

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• The DML is used at the conceptual and view levels to retrieve, insert ,
delete , modify information stored in database

• The following are DML commands:

– SELECT

– INSERT

– UPDATE

– DELETE

– MERGE
CALL
EXPLAIN PLAN

– LOCK TABLE
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Database Languages

• Both DDL and DML are usually not considered

distinct languages. Rather, they are included in a
comprehensive integrated language.

• For example, SQL relational database language is

a comprehensive DB language which represents a
combination of DDL and DML.

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DCL-Data Control Language

GRANT-Used to give access privileges to a database

REVOKE-Use to take back permission from the user.

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TCL – Transaction control Language
• Used to run the changes made by the DML statement.
• TCL Commands:
• Commit;-used to save the transaction on the database
• Rollback-used to restore the database to the original since the
last commit.

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Interfaces
Form-based Interfaces
• A form-based interface displays a form to each user. Users fill out
all of the form entries to insert new data, or they can fill out
only certain entries. These types of forms are usually designed or
created and programmed for the users who have no expertise in
operating system. Many DBMS have forms specification
languages which are special languages that help specify such
form.

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Menu Based Interfaces for Web clients
• These interfaces present the user with list of options (called
menus) that lead the user through the formation of a request.

Graphical user interface(GUI)

• A GUI typically displays a schema to the user in diagrammatic
form. The user can specify a query by manipulating the
diagram.

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Database Environment
What is a Database Environment?
• A database environment is a collective system of
components that comprise and regulates the group
of data, management, and use of data, which consist
of :
– Hardware
– Software
– People
– Procedures
– Data
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Hardware
• It identifies all the system’s physical devices.
• The database system’s main and most easily
identified hardware component is the computer,
which might be a microprocessor, a minicomputer,
or a mainframe computer. It also include
peripherals like keyboard, mice, modems, printers,
etc.

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Software

• Software refers to the collection of programs used by

the computers within the database system.

• Operating system Software- manages all hardware

components and makes it possible for all other software

to run on the computers. DOS,OS/2, and Windows used

by micro computers. UNIX and VMS used by mini

computers, and MVS used by IBM mainframe computers

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DBMS Software- manages the database within the database
system. MS-Access, MSSQL Server, Oracle, DB2 etc. are some
famous DBMS software.
Application Programs & Utilities
Software- are used to access and manipulate the data in the DBMS
to manage the computer environment in which data access and
manipulation take place.

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People
System Administrator: oversee the database system’s general
operations.
Database Administrator: manage the DBMS’s use and ensure that
the database is functioning properly.
Database Designers: design the database structure. They are in
effect the database architects. If the database design is poor, even
the best application programmers and the most dedicated DBAs will
fail to produce a useful database environment.

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System Analysts and Programmers: design and implement the
application programs. They design and create the data entry
screens, reports, and procedures through which end user
access and manipulate the database’s data.
End Users: are the people who use the application programs to
run the organization’s daily operations. E.g. sales clerks,
supervisors, managers, and directors are all classified as end
users. High-level end users employ the information obtained
from the database to make tactical and strategic business
decisions.

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Procedures
Procedures are the instructions and rules that govern the design
and use of the database system. Procedure are a critical,
although occasionally forgotten, component of the system.
Procedures play a very important role in a company, because they
enforce the standards by which business is conducted within the
organization and with customers. These also are used to ensure
that there is an organized way to monitor and audit both the data
and information.

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Data
The word “data” covers the collection of facts stored in the
database. Because data are the raw material from which
information is generated, the determination of which data
are to be entered into the database and how such data are
to be organized is a vital part of the database designer’s
job.

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DBMS Functions
• A DBMS performs several important functions that guarantee
the integrity and consistency of the data in the database.
Most of these functions are transparent to end users, and
most can be achieved only through the use of a DBMS.

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Data dictionary management: The DBMS requires that
definitions of the data elements and their
relationships(metadata) be stored in a data dictionary. In
turn, all programs that access the data in the database
work through the DBMS. The DBMS uses the data
dictionary to look up the required data component
structures and relationships, thus relieving us
from having to code such complex relationships
in each program.
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Data Storage Management: The DBMS creates the complex
structures required for data storage, thus relieving us from the
difficult task of defining and programming the physical data
characteristics. A modern DBMS system provides storage not only
for the data, but also for the related data entry forms or screen
definitions, report definitions, data validation rules, procedural
code, structures to handle video and picture formats, and so on.

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Data transformation and presentation: the DBMS transforms
entered data to conform to the data structures that are required to
store data. Therefore, the DBMS relieves us of the chore of making
a distinction between the data logical format and the data physical
format. By maintaining the data independence, the DBMS
translates logical requests into commands that physically locate
and retrieve the requested data. That is, the DBMS formats the
physically retrieved data to make it confirm to the user’s logical
expectations.

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Security Management: The DBMS creates a security system that
enforces user security and data privacy within the database.
Security rules determines which user can access the database,
which data items each user may access, and which data operations
the user may perform. This is especially important in multi user
database systems where many users can access the database
simultaneously.

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Multi user access control: The DBMS creates the complex
structures that allow multi user access to the data. In order to
provide data integrity and data consistency, the DBMS uses
sophisticated algorithms to ensure that multiple users can
access the database concurrently without compromising the
integrity of the database.

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Backup and recovery management: The DBMS provides backup
and data recovery procedures to ensure data safety and integrity.
Current DBMS system provide special utilities that allow the DBA
to perform routine and special backup and restore procedures.
Recovery management deals with the recovery of the database
after a failure, such as a bad sector in the disk or a power failure.
Such capability is critical to the preservation of the database’s
integrity.

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Data Integrity Management: The DBMS promotes and enforces
integrity rules to eliminate data integrity problems, thus
minimizing the data duplicity and maximizing data consistency.
The data relationships stored in the data dictionary are used to
enforce data integrity. Ensuring data integrity is especially
important in transaction-oriented database systems.

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Database access languages and application programming
interface: The DBMS provides data access via a query language. A
query language is a nonprocedural language – that is, one that
lets the user specify what must be done without having to specify
how it is to be done. The DBMS query language contains two
components: a DDL and DML. The DBMS also provides data access
to programmers via procedural languages. It also provides
administrative utilities used by the DBA and the database designer
to create, implement, monitor, and maintain the database.

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Database communication interfaces: Current-generation DBMSs
provide special communications routines designed to allow the
database to accept end user requests within a computer network
environment. In fact, database communications capabilities are an
essential feature of the modern DBMS. E.g. the DBMS might provide
communications functions to access the database through the
Internet, using Internet browsers such as Netscape or Explorer as
the front end.

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Components of a DBMS
• Query processor
• Database manager
• File manager
• DML preprocessor
• DDL compiler
• Catalog manager
Components of Database Manager
• Authorization control
• Command processor
• Integrity checker
• Query optimizer
• Transaction manager
• Scheduler
• Recovery manager
• Buffer manager
Database Management System (DBMS)

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Database System Utilities
• To perform certain functions such as:
– Loading data stored in files into a database. Includes data
conversion tools.
– Backing up the database periodically on tape.
– Reorganizing database file structures.
– Report generation utilities.
– Performance monitoring utilities.
• Data dictionary / repository:
• Application Development Environments and CASE (computer-aided
software engineering) tools:
• Examples:
– PowerBuilder (Sybase)
– JBuilder (Borland)
– Oracle SQL Developer, JDeveloper 10G (Oracle) Slide 1- 88
DBMS Architecture
Types of DBMS Architecture
• There are three types of DBMS architecture:

1. Single tier architecture

2. Two tier architecture
3. Three tier architecture
1. Single tier architecture
• In this type of architecture, the database is readily available on the
client machine, any request made by client doesn’t require a
network connection to perform the action on the database.

• For example, lets say you want to fetch the records of employee
from the database and the database is available on your computer
system, so the request to fetch employee details will be done by
your computer and the records will be fetched from the database
by your computer as well.

• This type of system is generally referred as local database system.

A Physical Centralized Architecture

Slide 1- 91
2. Two tier architecture
Logical two-tier client server architecture

Slide 1- 93
• In two-tier architecture, the Database system is present at the server machine

and the DBMS application is present at the client machine, these two machines

are connected with each other through a reliable network as shown in the above

diagram.

• Client manages main business and data processing logic and user interface,

Server manages and controls access to database.

• Whenever client machine makes a request to access the database present at

server using a query language like sql, the server perform the request on the

database and returns the result back to the client.

• The application connection interface such as JDBC, ODBC are used for the

interaction between server and client.

3. Three tier architecture
Three-tier client-server architecture

Slide 1- 96
• In three-tier architecture, another layer is present between the client

machine and server machine.

• In this architecture, the client application doesn’t communicate directly with

the database systems present at the server machine, rather the client

application communicates with server application and the server application

internally communicates with the database system present at the server.

• User interface layer – runs on client.

• Business logic and data processing layer – middle tier runs on a server

(application server).

• DBMS – stores data required by the middle tier. This tier may be on a

separate server (database server).

• Advantages:
– ‘Thin’ client, requiring less expensive hardware.
– Application maintenance centralized.
– Easier to modify or replace one tier without affecting
others.
– Separating business logic from database functions makes it
easier to implement load balancing.

– Maps quite naturally to Web environment.

Classification of Database Management
Systems

Database management systems can be classified based on

several criteria such as:
• Classification based on data model
• Classification based on number of users
• Classification based on data distribution
 Centralized Systems
 Distributed data system
 Homogeneous Distributed data systems
 Heterogeneous Distributed data systems
Classification Based on Data Model
• The most popular data model in use today is the relational
data model. Well-known DBMSs like Oracle, MS SQL Server,
DB2 and MySQL support this model. Other traditional models,
such as hierarchical data models and network data models,
are still used in industry mainly on mainframe platforms.
However, they are not commonly used due to their
complexity. These are all referred to
as traditional models because they preceded the relational
model.
In recent years, the newer object-oriented data models were
introduced. This model is a database management system in which
information is represented in the form of objects as used in object-
oriented programming. Object-oriented databases are different
from relational databases, which are table-oriented. Object-
oriented database management systems (OODBMS) combine
database capabilities with object-oriented programming language
capabilities.
The object-oriented models have not caught on as expected so
are not in widespread use. Some examples of object-oriented
DBMSs are O2, ObjectStore and Jasmine.
Classification Based on User Numbers
• A DBMS can be classification based on the number of users it
supports. It can be a single-user database system, which
supports one user at a time, or a multiuser database system,
which supports multiple users concurrently.
Classification Based on Database Distribution
• There are four main distribution systems for database systems
and these, in turn, can be used to classify the DBMS.
Centralized systems

• With a centralized database system, the DBMS and

database are stored at a single site that is used by several
other systems too.
Distributed database system
• In a distributed database system, the actual database and the
DBMS software are distributed from various sites that are
connected by a computer network
Homogeneous distributed database systems
• Homogeneous distributed database systems use the same
DBMS software from multiple sites. Data exchange between
these various sites can be handled easily.
Heterogeneous distributed database systems
• In a heterogeneous distributed database system, different
sites might use different DBMS software, but there is
additional common software to support data exchange
between these sites..
References

Elmasri & Navathe, “Fundamentals of database

systems”, 4th ed.

107