Quality Control and

Technical Report Writing-

19MECH41C

Prof. Tamer A. Mohamed

Outline
 What is Variation?
 Control Charts
 State of Control
 Out of Control Condition
 Control Charts
Control Charts for Attributes
Control Charts for Variables
 Variation

The variation concept is a law of nature

in that no two natural items in any
category are the same.
 Variation

 Thevariation may be quite large and easily

noticeable
 Thevariation may be very small. It may
appear that items are identical; however,
precision instruments will show difference
 Theability to measure variation is
necessary before it can be controlled
Variation

There are three categories of variation in

piece part production:
1. Within-piece variation: Surface
2. Piece-to-piece variation: Among pieces
produced at the same time
3. Time-to-time variation: Difference in
product produced at different times of
the day
Variation

Sources of Variation in production processes:

Measurement
Operators Methods
Materials Instruments

INPUTS PROCESS OUTPUTS

Tools Human
Machines Environment Inspection
Performance
Variation

Sources of variation are:

1. Equipment:
1. Toolwear
2. Machine vibration
3. Electrical fluctuations etc.
2. Material
1. Tensile strength
2. Ductility
3. Thickness
4. Porosity etc.
Variation

Sources of variation are:

3. Environment
1. Temperature
2. Light
3. Radiation
4. Humidity etc.
4. Operator
1. Personal problem
2. Physical problem etc.
Variation

There is also a reported variation which is

due to the inspection activity.
Variation due to inspection should account
for one tenth of the four other sources of
variation.
Variation

Variation may be due to chance causes

(random causes) or assignable causes.
When only chance causes are present,
then the process is said to be in a state of
statistical control. The process is stable
and predictable.
What is Control Charts?
 Control charts, also known as Shewhart
charts, in statistical process control are tools
used to determine if a manufacturing or
process is in a state of statistical control.
Control Charts

A control chart consists of:

◦ Points representing process statistic
◦ Centre Line
◦ Upper and lower control limits
 State of Control

68
%
95.5%

99.73%

Figure 5-9 Natural pattern of variation of a control chart

State of Control

Process in Control
 When special causes have been eliminated

from the process to the extent that the

points plotted on the control chart remain
within the control limits, the process is in a
state of control
 When a process is in control, there occurs

a natural pattern of variation

State of Control

Types of errors:
 Type I, occurs when looking for a special

cause of variation when in reality a

common cause is present
 Type II, occurs when assuming that a

common cause of variation is present

when in reality there is a special cause
State of Control

When the process is in control:

1. Individual units of the product or service
will be more uniform
2. The process capability or spread of the
process is easily attained from 6
3. Trouble can be anticipated before it occurs
State of Control

When the process is in control:

5. The % of product that falls within any pair
of values is more predictable
6. It allows the consumer to use the
producer’s data
7. It is an indication that the operator is
performing satisfactorily
 Common
Causes

Special
Causes

45
State of Control

Figure 5-11 Frequency Distribution of subgroup averages with control limits

Out of Control Condition

 When a point (subgroup value) falls

outside its control limits, the process is
out of control.
 Out of control means a change in the
process due to a special cause. A process
can also be considered out of control even
when the points fall inside the 3 limits
Out of Control

 It is not natural for seven or more consecutive

points to be above or below the central line.
 Also when 10 out of 11 points or 12 out of 14
points are located on one side of the central
line, it is unnatural.
 Six points in a row are steadily increasing or
decreasing indicate an out of control situation
Out-of-Control Condition

 Change or jump in level.

 Trend or steady change in level
 Recurring cycles
 Two populations (also called mixture)
Patterns in Control Charts

Figure 5-12 Some unnatural runs-process out of control

Out-of-Control Patterns

Change or jump in level Trend or steady change in

level

Recurring cycles Two populations

Control Charts

 Variable data
x-bar and R-charts
x-bar and s-charts
Charts for individuals (x-charts)
 Attribute data
For “defectives” (p-chart, np-
chart)
For “defects” (c-chart, u-chart)
Control Charts
Continuous Categorical or Discrete
Numerical Data Control Numerical Data
Charts

Variables Attributes
Charts Charts

R X P C
Chart Chart Chart Chart
Control Charts for Variables

The control chart for variables is a means

of visualizing the variations that occur in
the dispersion and the mean or central
tendency of a set of observations. It
shows whether or not a process is in a
stable state.
Control Charts

Figure 5-1 Example of a control chart

 Figure 5-1 Example
of a
method of
reporting inspection
results
Variable Control Charts

The objectives of the variable control charts

are:
1. For quality improvement
2. To determine the process capability
3. For decisions regarding product
specifications
4. For current decisions on the production
process
Control Chart Techniques

Procedure for establishing a pair of control charts

for the average X-bar and the range R:
1. Select the quality characteristic
2. Choose the rational subgroup
3. Collect the data
4. Determine the trial center line and control limits
5. Establish the revised central line and control
limits
6. Achieve the objective
Quality Characteristic

The Quality characteristic must be

measurable.
It can expressed in terms of the six basic
units:
1.Length

2.Mass

3.Time

4.Electrical current

5.Temperature

6.Luminosity
Rational Subgroup

A rational subgroup is one in which the

variation within a group is due only to
chance causes.
Within-subgroup variation is used to
determine the control limits.
Variation between subgroups is used to
evaluate long-term stability.
Rational Subgroup

• Selected from product or service produced

over a period of time that is
representative of all the products or
services
Subgroup Size

 As the subgroup size increases, the

control limits become closer to the central
value, which make the control chart more
sensitive to small variations in the process
average
 As the subgroup size increases, the
inspection cost per subgroup increases
 When destructive testing is used and the
item is expensive, a small subgroup size is
required
Subgroup Size

 From a statistical basis, a

distribution of subgroup averages
are nearly normal for groups of 4 or
more even when samples are taken
from a non-normal distribution
 When a subgroup size of 10 or more is
used, the s chart should be used instead
of the R chart
Run Chart

Figure 5-4 Chart for data of Table 5-2

Trial Central Lines
Central Lines are obtained using:
g g

X i R i
X  i 1
and R i 1
g g
where
X average of subgroup averages
X i average of the ith subgroup
g number of subgroups
R average of subgroup ranges
Ri range of the ith subgroup
Trial Control Limits
Trial control limits are established at ±3
standard deviations from the central value
UCLX  X  3 X UCLR  R  3 R
LCLX  X  3 X LCLR  R  3 R
where
UCL=upper control limit
LCL=lower control limit
 X  population standard deviation of the subgroup averages
 R  population standard deviation of the range
Trial Control Limits

In practice calculations are simplified by

using the following X
equations
UCL  X  A R
2

LCL  X  A R
X 2
R

R
UCL D R
4

LCL D R
3
where A2,D3
and D4 are factors that vary with the
subgroup size and are found in the
Appendix.
Figure 5-5 Xbar
and
R chart for
preliminary data
with trial control
limits
Revised Central Lines

X new 
 X Xd
and R new 
 R R d

g  gd g  gd
where
X d  discarded subgroup averages
g d number of discarded subgroups
Rd discarded subgroup ranges
Standard Values
R0
X 0  X new R0 R new and  0 
d2

UCLX  X 0  A 0 UCLR D2 0

LCLX  X 0  A 0 LCLR D1 0
 Figure 5-6 Trial
control limits and
revised control
limits for Xbar and
R charts
Achieve the Objective

Figure 5-7
Continuing use of
control
charts, showing
improved quality
Sample Standard Deviation
Control Chart

For subgroup sizes >=10, an s chart is

more accurate than an R Chart. Trial control
limits are given by:

 
g g
s
i 1 i
Xi
s X i 1
g g
UCLX  X  A3 s UCLs B4 s
LCLX  X  A3 s LCLs B3 s
Revised Limits for s chart

X 0  X new 
 X Xd
g  gd

s0 snew 
 s s d
0 
s0
g  gd c4
UCLX  X 0  A 0 UCLs  B6 0
LCLX  X 0  A 0 LCLs  B5 0
where
sd  discarded subgroup averages
c4 , A, B5 , B6  factors found in Table B