DESIGN OPTIONS FOR

HVAC DISTRIBUTION
SYSTEMS

Dr. Osama Ayadi

 Centralized HVAC system installations
utilize a number of separate components
that are field assembled to serve the
specific needs of an individual building.
Central Plant Elements
 A central plant has 4 principle elements:
1. Energy Supply (e.g. electricity, fuel, solar,…);

2. Service Generators (e.g. boilers, chillers);

3. Distribution Components (e.g. air distribution ducts,

pipes);
Distribution components convey a heating or cooling medium
from source-located service generators to portions of a
building that require conditioning.

4. Delivery Components (e.g. diffusers, radiators).

Delivery components serve as an interface between the
distribution system and occupied spaces.
 HVAC systems are of great importance to
architectural design efforts for three main reasons.
1. These systems consume substantial floor space
and/or building volume for equipment and
distribution elements that must be accommodated
during the design process.
2. HVAC systems constitute a single major budget item
in building projects.
3. The success of a building depends on the ability to
provide thermal comfort with the least operating
costs (maintenance, energy, or replacement). This
depends on the HVAC system design, equipment
and controls.
 There are several choices for air
distribution, each satisfying the HVAC
objectives with different degrees of
success.
 The best design will consider the
pertinent architectural and financial
constraints without sacrificing the
performance in terms of reliability,
indoor air quality, and energy efficiency.
 Architectural Constraints:

 In selecting a suitable air conditioning system for a

particular application, considerations are given to the
following:

 Details of architecture and building construction;

 Floor space and clear heights to accommodate HVAC
equipment and distribution elements;
 Aesthetics;
 Size and appearance of terminal devices;
 Coordination of reflected ceiling plans with lighting,
fire sprinklers/detectors;
 Acceptable noise levels;
 Space available to house equipment and its
location relative to the conditioned space;
 Shaft spaces available for routing ducts/pipes,
etc.
 Climate and shading;
 Indoor and outdoor equipment preferences;
 Acceptability of components projecting into the
conditioned space;
 Codes and standards of smoke removal systems;
 Usage patterns;
 Occupancy.
System constraints:

 Type of facility and the indoor conditions required;

 Cooling/heating load;
 Zoning requirements;
 Humidification/dehumidification needs;
 Energy availability and efficiency;
 Redundancy and equipment configuration;
 Type of equipment;
 Reliability of operations;
 Control scheme;
 Zone/individual control.
Financial Constraints

 Capital cost;
 Operating cost;
 Maintenance cost;
 Replacement costs;
 Upgrading costs;
 Equipment failure costs;
 Return of investment (ROI)/Life cycle
analysis.
 Each of these concerns has a different
priority depending on the customer’s
goals.
 Most customers may not understand
HVAC design aspects nor their benefits
and limitations.
 It is the responsibility of the Architect
and the HVAC Engineer to guide and
advise the customer on the best option.
For an HVAC Engineer, the customer
may be an Architect whose customer
HVAC DISTRIBUTION
SYSTEMS
 Based on the fluid media used in the thermal distribution system,
air conditioning systems can be classified as:

1. All Air systems (significant ducting)

All-Air Systems deliver heated/cooled air to each space through
ducts;

2. Air-Water systems (moderate ducting)

Air-Water Systems deliver a combination of heated/cooled air and

hot/chilled water to control aspects of comfort.

3. All Water systems (ductless systems)

All-Water Systems deliver chilled/hot water to each space and rely
on indoor terminal units;

4. Unitary refrigerant based systems (usually for smaller

PART 1: ALL - AIR
SYSTEMS
 “All-Air” systems are classified by two main
categories:

1. Single duct;
The single duct systems can provide either cooling
or heating using the same duct, but not both
heating and cooling simultaneously

2. Dual or double duct.

Dual duct and multi zone systems can provide both
heating and cooling simultaneously.
Single duct system
• Single duct, constant volume, single
zone system;
• Single duct, constant volume, multiple
zone system with terminal reheat;
• Variable air volume system.
Single Duct, Constant Volume,
Single Zone Systems
 The simplest and most common of the “All-Air” central
systems is a single duct, constant volume, single zone
system.
 This system is so called as there is only one supply duct,
through which either hot air or cold air flows, but not both
simultaneously.
 It is called as a constant volume system as the volumetric
flow rate of supply air is always maintained constant.
 It is a single zone system as the control is based on
temperature and humidity ratio measured at a single point.
Here a zone refers to a space controlled by one
thermostat.
 However, the single zone may consist of a single room or
one floor or whole of a building consisting of several rooms.
Control Philosophy
1. Coil control
 The cooling/ heating capacity in the single zone, constant
volume systems is regulated by either Coil control

1. In coil control, supply air temperature and humidity ratio

is controlled by varying the flow rate of cold and hot water
in the cooling and heating coils, respectively. As the cooling
season gradually changes to heating season, the cooling coil
valve is gradually closed and heating coil valve is opened.
 Though coil control is simpler, using this type of control it is
not possible to control the zone humidity precisely as the
dehumidification rate in the cooling coil decreases with cold
water flow rate. Thus at low cold water flow rates, the
humidity ratio of the conditioned space is likely to be higher
than required.
 Three-way mixing
valve operation–coil
bypass.
 Three-way valves
maintain constant
flow in the piping.
 As the temperature
requirements
change, the volume
of the fluid in the
coil varies.
Control Philosophy
2. Face-and-bypass control.

 In face-and-bypass control, the cold and hot

water flow rates are maintained constant,
but the amount of air flowing over the coils
are decreased or increased by opening or
closing the by-pass dampers, respectively.
By this method it is possible to control the
zone humidity more precisely, however, this
type of control occupies more space
physically and is also expensive compared to
coil control.
 Because this type of system serves only
one zone, control is normally affected at
the air-handling unit (AHU) by a single
thermostat and humidistat, it is
important to locate these sensors in a
proper location, so that they are
indicative of zone conditions.
Advantages of Single Duct, Single
Zone, Constant Volume Systems:

1. The primary advantage of a single zone

central system is simplicity of design;
2. Single zone systems are the most basic
and least complex of central all-air
systems;
3. Low first cost among all types of
systems;
4. Easiest to maintain.
Disadvantages of Single Duct,
Single Zone, Constant Volume
Systems:

 1. It can effectively condition only one

zone. This is only a disadvantage when
improperly applied.
 2. Because control is achieved at the air-
handling unit, single zone systems are
not easily modified to serve multiple
zones, should building usage change
with time.
Applications of Single Duct, Single
Zone, Constant Volume Systems:

1. Space with uniform loads such as large

open areas with small external loads
e.g. theatres, auditoria, departmental
stores;
2. Small spaces requiring precision control
such as laboratories;
3. Multiple single zone systems for large
areas.
SINGLE DUCT, MULTI-ZONE
SYSTEMS WITH TERMINAL
REHEAT
 For very large buildings such as office
buildings etc. with several zones of
different cooling/heating requirements, it
is economically not feasible to provide
separate duct for each zone. For such
cases, multiple zone systems are
suitable that uses “reheat” to control the
comfort conditions in each zone.
Advantages of Single Duct, Multi-
zone Systems:

 Relatively small space requirement;

 Excellent temperature and humidity
control over a wide range of zone loads;
 Proper ventilation and air quality in each
zone is maintained as the supply air
amount is kept constant under all
conditions
Disadvantages of Single Duct,
Multi-zone Systems:

 Expensive to operate.
 These systems are energy inefficient as
the system involve simultaneous use of
cooling and reheat. For this reason, use
of reheat systems is strictly regulated by
most energy codes and standards. Many
state and local regulations restrict the
use of reheat (see ASHRAE Standard
90.1)
DUAL DUCT SYSTEMS
Advantages of Dual Duct Systems:

1. Cooling in some zones and heating in other zones

can be achieved simultaneously;
2. Good temperature and humidity control - system is
very responsive to variations in the zone load, thus it
is possible to maintain required conditions precisely;
3. Zoning of central equipment is not required;
4. Adaptable to either constant volume or VAV
systems;
5. Since total airflow rate to each zone is constant, it
is possible to maintain proper IAQ and room air
distribution.
6. No seasonal changeover is necessary.
Disadvantages of Dual Duct
Systems:

1.Occupies more space for running of two ducts have

to be sized to handle the entire air flow rate, if
required.
2.High first cost for installation of two supply ducts
throughout the building;
3. Not very energy efficient due to the need for
simultaneous cooling and heating of the air streams.
4. Large number of mixing boxes to maintain;
5. Difficult to use economizer cycle;
6. Does not operate as economically as other VAV
systems.
 Dual duct systems are no longer popular
due to their high energy consumption;
however, they are occasionally used in
hospitals where VAV is inappropriate.
PART- 2 VARIABLE AIR VOLUME (VAV)
SYSTEMS
 Constant air volume systems accomplish cooling and heating
by varying the supply air temperature while maintaining the
air volume constant.
 As the name implies, Constant Air Volume (CAV) system
delivers a constant air volume to the conditioned space
irrespective of load. The air conditioner cycles “on and off”,
or chilled water is modulated for a chilled water cooling coil,
as the load varies. The fan continues to run during the off
cycle. Two important things on constant volume systems
should be noted:
 1. When a fixed flow rate is delivered, it is referred to as a
constant volume system.
 2. When the load conditions (indoor temperature/humidity) vary
from the set point, the constant volume air-conditioning system
responds by varying the temperature of the supply air.
 A variable air volume (VAV) system changes the
quantity of air supplied to a space in response to
changes in loads. This is a major operational
difference.
 Compared to constant volume systems, the variable
air volume systems offer advantages such as:
 a. Lower energy consumption during partial load
conditions as air is not cooled to very low temperatures
and then reheated as in constant volume systems.
 b. Lower energy consumption also results due to lower
fan power input due to lower air flow rate.
 VAV box (terminal control box)

 The temperature of supply air to each zone remains constant, whereas

its flow rate varies depending upon the load on that particular zone.
 Ideally the air-handling unit serving the VAV distribution network
should be provided with a variable frequency drive (VFD) to alter the
fan speed in relation to the airflow demand.
Typical Applications:
 VAV systems are suitable for use in
buildings having many areas of
dissimilar cooling requirements. VAV
systems lead to significantly lower
power consumption, especially in
perimeter zones where variations in
solar load and outside temperature
allows for reduced air flow rates.
PART- 3 AIR-WATER CENTRAL
SYSTEMS

 Air-water systems use the beneficial features

from both all-air and all-water systems.
 The latent energy primarily from outside air is
removed in a dedicated air handling unit, which
distributes conditioned air for ventilation and
pressurization to indoor space.
 The sensible energy from the indoor space is carried
a. The Air Portion of the System:

 The airside of the system uses central air components such as an

air-handling unit, a distribution duct, and a room terminal. The air
supplied is usually constant volume 100% outside air without any
recirculation air. It has the following four objectives:

1. Satisfies the ventilation requirement of the conditioned space,

which is defined by ASHARE 62 as 20 cfm per person or often 1
to 1.5 air changes, which is a function of space volume.

2. Filters the outside air through high efficiency filtration.

3. The primary AHU meets latent load (moisture removal) of

outside air.

4. Keeps the indoor conditioned space pressurized

b. The Water Portion of the System:

 The waterside consists of a pump and piping to supply water to

transfer heat to the cooling/heating coils located within each
conditioned space. A refrigeration chiller produces the chilled water
and hot water is produced by a boiler in the central plant.
 The heat exchange coils in the conditioned area may be integral
with the air terminal (induction units), or fan coil units, or radiant
heat panels. The fan coil unit is most popular; it has its own fan
that blows air over the coil.
 The terminal units placed indoors are 100% recirculation units. The
ventilation air requirement is compensated by the primary air
handler unit (shown as air conditioning unit in the figure below).
 There can be one single coil per terminal unit which is converted to
heating or cooling mode depending on the season, or two coils per
unit to provide either heating or cooling
 at all times. In other words, the water system can be arranged as 2,
3, and 4 pipe water systems.
Temperature control
 The temperature in each room is
maintained by controlling the terminal
unit either by modulating the flow of
water through the coil, or by the amount
of air passing over the coil.
 At some outdoor air temperature,
mechanical cooling is no longer required
and the cooling load can be met with the
primary air alone. The terminal units are
shut off during such periods
The Advantages of Air – Water
System:

1. Water has a greater specific heat and density compared to

air; therefore, the cross-sectional area of water distribution
pipes is less than that of air distribution ductwork;
2. Space needed for the distribution system is minimal. The use
of water to provide secondary cooling reduces the space
required and the size of the air ducts, thus saving building
space;
3. Individual zone control is possible in an economic manner
using room thermostats, which control either the secondary
water flow rate or the secondary air (in fan coil units) or both;
4. The return air system can be eliminated since the air
supplied only has to meet outside air requirements plus any
air exhausted;
5. Operating cost will be less; the power required to pump water
through the building is usually less than the fan power needed
for the supply air and return air systems. Also, because of
individual control, the secondary terminal units can be switched
off where not required;
6. Cross contamination is reduced because recirculation occurs
within rooms;
7. Heating and cooling can be performed without ventilation when
a space is unoccupied;
8. The moisture removal takes place in the outside air-handling
units and nearly dry air is fed indoors. The terminal units
perform only the sensible cooling and the terminal unit coils
usually run dry. The dry secondary system coils reduce the
chance of microbial growth in the indoor spaces.
Disadvantages of Air-Water
System:

1. Compared to all-air systems, controls are more

complex and complicated due to the need for
handling and controlling both primary air and
secondary water;
2. The design for intermediate season operation is
critical. Design of between-season operations is
crucial as a result of the low primary air delivered;
3. Since a constant amount of primary air is supplied
to conditioned space, and room control is only
through the control of room cooling/heating coils,
shutting down the supply of primary air to
unoccupied spaces is not possible;
4. Low dew point air must be provided because all
dehumidification is done at a central location. If
5. The indoor terminal units require a draining
arrangement for moisture disposal even though the
latent load is handled with an independent primary
air ventilation system. This depends however on
the possibility of latent load in the indoor spaces;
6. Terminal units require frequent in-space
maintenance;
7. Occasional cleaning of terminal unit filters is
required even though the air is pretreated by the
primary air-handler unit;
8. Initial cost could be high compared to all-air and
all-water systems.
Applications of Air-Water
System:
 These systems are mainly used in
buildings with large sensible loads and
where close control of humidity in the
conditioned space is not required.
 These are suitable where building
ceiling heights are low and floor space is
at premium.
 These are commonly applied for
perimeter spaces.
 These systems are suitable for office
buildings, hospitals, schools, hotels,
Illustration- Hotel Application

 A typical example of an “Air-water” system is in hotel

rooms. Each hotel room is provided with a fan coil unit
that is supplied from a chilled/hot water source. At the
same time, the room is provided with a portion of fresh
air through a 100% treated fresh air handler that also
feeds the corridor area. Since the occupancy of the hotel
room is usually lean during the daytime, the fan coil unit
remains off during no occupancy. However, a small
amount of fresh air via the 100% treated fresh air-handler
is consistently provided so that the room does not
become air stagnant. The fan coil unit capacity is
designed for the room sensible and latent capacity arising
from occupancy, solar, and appliances such as the TV and
refrigerator.
 This concept provides the following advantages:
 • Provides personalized individual control to the guest by switching the fan on or
off, or by changing the speed. Auto-control is possible by adjusting the thermostat
to a set position.
 • Insures energy efficiency as the unit can be switched off during unoccupied hours.
 • Reduce structural costs due to less plenum height and smaller mechanical rooms.
The air handler and ductwork are about 1/3 normal size. As there is no need to run
large ducts to the room spaces, the terminal fan coil unit requires the routing of
typically only 2 to 3 inch diameter chilled water pipe. Main ducts are routed only to
the corridor area for general ventilation, providing the pressurization air, and
another duct for smoke removal systems during emergency fire situations.

 In a room, a fan coil unit is usually ceiling mounted on a plenum space at the
entrance corridor between the wardrobe and the bathroom. Typically 50 to 80 cfm
of treated fresh air is supplied to a room while 30 to 50 cfm is constantly exhausted
from the bathroom. This keeps the room ventilated and pressurized.
 • Lower operating cost due to smaller fans, lower reheat requirements, energy and
moisture recovery
PART 4 ALL WATER (HYDRONIC)
SYSTEM
 Terminal units are 100% recirculation
units. System ventilation is usually
accommodated by opening windows, by
infiltration, or installing outside wall
openings.
 Water Systems only control temperature.
Filtering of the air is normally carried out
through the indoor fan coil terminal
units.
All - Water System
Advantages:
 1. Water is an effective heat transfer medium; therefore,
distribution pipes generally are of relatively small volume
compared to air ducts.
 2. Recirculation of air is unnecessary, so comingling of
odors and contaminants, or concerns over fire and smoke
spreading from one zone to another, are minimized.
 3. First cost is often less than for other central systems.
 4. Less building space is required.
 5. More suitable for retrofit applications.
 6. Off-hour conditioning does not require central air
system operation.
 7. Cooling can be easily shut off in
unoccupied areas.
 8. Quieter than unitary systems.
 9. Minimal space needed for air handling
rooms and duct clearances.
 10. Individual zone temperature control.
 11. Variable speed secondary pumps can be
used to improve comfort control and reduce
operating costs.
 12. Can use heat recovery techniques.
 13. Flexible and readily adaptable to many
building module requirements.
 14. Provides individual room control.
 15. Prevents cross contamination of
recirculated air from one room to another.
All – Water System Disadvantages:

 1. All-water system is limited by its inability to control relative humidity,

outdoor air content, air composition, and pressure.
 2. A separate ventilation system is required for quality installations.
 3. No positive ventilation is provided unless wall openings are used.
Ventilation is usually from a wall aperture and is not easily controlled due
to wind and stack effect. Otherwise it is often accomplished by the
opening of windows.
 4. Unless dehumidification and latent load is handled with a separate
ventilation system such as an air-water system, a condensate drain pan
system is required and terminal air filters must be periodically cleaned.
 5. Relative humidity may be high in summer, particularly if chilled water
flow is modulated for temperature control. No humidification is provided.
 6. Seasonal change over is required.
 7. Maintenance and service work must be performed in occupied areas.
 8. The filters associated with terminal units are the low efficiency type and
require frequent changes because of static pressure limitations.
 Depending upon the number of pipes used; the
all-water systems can be classified into a 2-
pipe system or a 4-pipe system.
 When one coil is used for cooling only, heating
only, or heating and cooling at various times, a
two-pipe water distribution system is used.
 When two coils are used, one for heating and
one for cooling, a four-pipe water distribution
system is used. Heating may also be
accomplished using an electrical strip heater
mounted on the terminal unit
The main advantages of 4- pipe
system are:
 1. All year availability of heating and cooling with
individual zone temperature control;
 2. Chilled and hot water can be simultaneously
supplied during the Spring and Fall seasons;
 3. Elimination of zoning cost and complexity;
 4. Simpler changeover decisions (no summer-winter
changeover and primary air reheat schedule);
 5. The lowest and quietest fan speed is adequate
most of the time;
 6. More flexible and adaptable to widely varying
loads.
Disadvantages of 4 – pipe system:

 Four-pipe systems have a high first cost

in additon to the need for either two
coils or more costly control valves at
each terminal unit;

 The systems also have a high operating

cost because of the two pump operation.
They do however provide good flexibility
in meeting varying loads.
CONCLUSIVE RECAP

1. All the three HVAC distribution systems share one common objective
as a system. It is to control the environment of an interior space.

2. All three systems use heating coils to heat the air and cooling coils to
cool it. The location of the coils varies from system to system. In the
all-air system the heating/cooling coils are located in the central air-
handler. In the air-water system the coils are located in the air-handler
as well the terminal units. In the in all-water system the coils are
located in the multiple terminal units located in the indoor spaces.

3. With regard to air distribution devices, the all-air system uses a

central air-handler located in unoccupied area. The air-water system
uses a central air-handler (100% outside air) and terminal units (fan
coil or induction units) in the occupied areas. The all-water system
uses (100% recirculated air) and terminal units (fan coil units) in the
occupied areas.
4. One major difference between the all-air, air-water, and all-
water systems is that the first two can regulate the outdoor
air intake, or air circulation, whereas the all-water system
must depend on windows, doors, etc. to provide this. In other
words, the all-air and air-water systems allow for room
positive pressurization.

5. Briefly, the three systems may have specific equipment

differences on the air distribution method, but all three use
the distribution of chilled/hot water and allow the space air
to come in contact with the heated or cooled fluid to change
the environment. In all three systems either the air or water
must be delivered to each space using either ductwork
and/or piping.
 Examples below illustrate the preferred systems for typical
applications:
 • A large indoor stadium should have “All air” single duct system.
 • A large commercial building office complex should have
“Multiple zone, single duct” system.
 • Individual rooms of a large hotel should have “Air -water” (star
hotels) or All –Water systems (small inns and guest houses).
 • An existing building with good ventilation requirement should
have “Air-water” system.
 • An existing, small office building should have “Unitary” systems
 • A large precision laboratory should have “Constant” air volume
system
 • Areas demanding simultaneous cooling and heating should have
“Dual duct or VAV” system.
 Examples below illustrate the preferred systems for typical
applications:
 • A large indoor stadium should have “All air” single duct system.
 • A large commercial building office complex should have “Multiple
zone, single duct” system.
 • Individual rooms of a large hotel should have “Air -water” (star
hotels) or All –Water systems (small inns and guest houses).
 • An existing building with good ventilation requirement should have
“Air-water” system.
 • An existing, small office building should have “Unitary” systems
 • A large precision laboratory should have “Constant” air volume
system
 • Perimeter zone of a building should have “Variable” air volume
system
 • Areas demanding simultaneous cooling and heating should have
“Dual duct or VAV” system.
INDIVIDUAL COMPACT UNITARY
UNITS
 Individual compact systems are direct expansion (DX)
systems. These operate using direct expansion of
refrigerant in the finned tubes across the air path, unlike
chilled water in central systems
The advantages of
Unitary Units
1. Units are off-the-self items and normally have low initial cost compared
to central plants;
2. Individual room control is simple and inexpensive;
3. Each conditioned space has individual air distribution with simple
adjustment by the occupants;
4. Performance of the system is guaranteed by the manufacturer;
5. System installation is simple and takes very less time;
6. Operation of the system is simple and there is no need for a trained
operator;
Heating and cooling capability is provided at all times, independent of the
mode of operation of other spaces;
8. Only one terminal, zone, or controller is affected in the event of an
equipment malfunction;
9. Unitary systems are ideal for retrofitting applications as the required
floor space is small.
disadvantages of Unitary
Units
As the components are selected and matched by the
manufacturer, the system is less flexible in terms of air flow
rate, condenser and evaporator sizes. Most unitary equipment is
usually designed for a 70% sensible load factor and it has a
fixed airflow, usually 400 cfm per ton of refrigeration;
2. Power consumption per TR could be higher compared to
central systems of same capacity;
3. Noise level in the conditioned space could be higher;
4. Limited ventilation capabilities;
6. The space temperature may experience a swing if on-off
control is used as in room air conditioners;
7. Limited options for controlling room air distribution;
8. Equipment life is relatively short.
Application of Unitary
Units:
 Unitary refrigerant based systems are used
where stringent control of conditioned space
temperature and humidity is not required
and where the initial cost should be low with
a small lead time. These systems can be
used for air conditioning individual rooms to
large office buildings, classrooms, hotels,
shopping centers, nursing homes etc. These
systems are especially suited for existing
building with a limitation on available floor
space for air conditioning systems.
WINDOW UNITS
(CONSOLES)
 These units are designed for comfort cooling
and provide delivery of conditioned air to a
room without ducts. They include a prime
source of refrigeration, dehumidification,
means for circulating and cleaning air, and may
also include means for ventilating and/or
exhausting, and heating.
 They have a low initial cost and are quick and
easy to install.
 Window units require outside exposure for heat
rejection and cannot be used for interior rooms.
 The refrigerant compressor is part of the
machine located in the window area.
Since this compressor generates noise,
along with other components, the
window unit makes the room
acoustically inferior to other air
conditioning systems
 Fresh air exchange for the room can be
provided
SPLIT AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS

 As the name suggests, split systems are

individual systems in which the two heat
exchangers are separated, one outside,
one inside. In other words, the
evaporator or cooling portion is located
indoors, and the condensing or heat
rejection unit is located outdoors. The
separate systems are connected by
refrigerant pipes.