Starter

Discuss what you think critical thinking

means?

Can you come up with a definition?

It will form an important part of your

approach to your research project.
 Starter
Critical thinking is the ability to analyse
facts and establish a judgement based
on logic and reason. This allows a
problem to be solved effectively.

It is an essential social skill to improve

social interactions, discuss topics more
deeply and to be able to work with
points of view that may differ from your
own.

Elements of critical thinking include inventing,

making analogies, formulating hypotheses and
recommending alternatives. Critical thinking
skills help to filter the information that you take
in and select which pieces are the most relevant
to the task in hand.
 Primary Research
We will look at some of the most important approaches to your own research.
Some of the most important techniques and skills you will use are:

Qualitative data

Quantitative data

Using questionnaires

Types of questions

Conducting interviews

Self-reflection

Referencing
 Questionnaires
Questionnaires are an effective way of gathering information. What are the
advantages and disadvantages of questionnaires?

Advantages Disadvantages
It is an economical way of
Reliability can be low
gathering information

No personal interaction
which can show feelings of
It can be focused to a
an individual and no
particular area of study
opportunity to ask for
further explanation

Data can be collected Incomplete or vague

quickly responses

Answers may be more

Only a small group
honest than in an
respond and this gives a
interview if there is
very limited sample
anonymity
Researcher does not have
to react or respond
Misunderstanding of a
instantly to an individual in
question
the same way as an
interview
 7 Steps to Create a
Step 1
Questionnaire
Determine the Objective, Resources
and Time Scale. Why are you doing
it?
Step 2 Determine who you will ask?

Step 3 Determine the method you will be

using.

Step 4 Writing clear questions.

Step 5 Designing the flow of the questions.

Step 6 Trialling the questionnaire.

Writing and organising the finished

Step 7 questionnaire ready to be
administered.
We will look at each one in turn.
Step 1: Determine the Objective, Resources
and Time Scale. Why are you doing it?
Decide what type of data you are hoping to collect. Quantitative or
Qualitative?
Advantages Disadvantages
Does not provide data on
Gives numerical data
feelings or emotions
More objective – relies on
Measurement errors
numbers
Quantitative
Needs skilful analysis
Can be easier to obtain
larger samples
Can overlook key factors
that are not clear in the
Fewer variables involved
numerical data

Gives descriptive data Time consuming

Useful for emotions and Needs skilful analysis

feelings
Sample can be small
Qualitative
Can give in depth analysis
Sample bias
Non-numerical
Bias when forming
Categorical data questions
 Step 2: Determine who you will ask?
Think about who can be asked and the reasons for your choice. Most
researchers will ask a sample of representative people, e.g. for a political
opinion poll.
Step 3: Determine the method you will be
using.
Once you have decided on the people you interview that will influence the
method you use.
If you were conducting an interview with younger children you would need
to think about the vocabulary. If it was a study for older people over 80
then online methods may not be appropriate.

Some methods you could use:

Written questionnaires

Online responses

Personal interviews

Online interviews
Step 4: Writing clear questions.
Step 1 should have informed you of what types of questions you can ask.
You could use closed or open ended questions or a combination of both.
Advantages Disadvantages
Does not go deeper than
Easier to collate and
what has already happened
measure
or felt
Online survey applications
Exact answer a respondent
can collate data quickly
wants to give is not
available
Closed question Gives quick results
Too many options may
Easier to ensure
confuse
consistency
Cannot determine if
Easy to compare with other
respondent understands
results
the question

Allows wider issues to be Takes more time and effort

raised to reply to questions

Gives a more complete Individuals may not be

Open question picture of an issue or area comfortable expressing
and allows a respondent to their views
express their feelings
Limited control on
Unlimited range of replies responses
Step 5: Designing the flow of the questions.
Make sure that the questions flow well:

Start with the easiest first as this will encourage

individuals to complete the questionnaire or be
prepared to answer further questions.

Group questions on a similar theme together, e.g.

healthy lifestyle choices and avoid returning to a
similar theme later.

Vary the types of questions. Some could be closed

and others open. Ranking choices in order or
selecting a sample from a list are also helpful.

Ensure the questions are interesting and the

vocabulary is appropriate for the sample.
Step 6: Trialling the questionnaire.
Trialling or piloting the questionnaire is a pre-test of its effectiveness. Ask
a small group to answer the questions you have prepared. You can then
check to see if:
the questions are easy to understand

if the questions flow well

the questions are not vague

if the questions are effective in giving you useful replies

if you have omitted key information and need more questions

on a particular area

if the respondents understand how to complete the

questionnaire
The trialling process is very important, it is only after a pilot you will be
able to see if questions are clear to the respondents. It also allows the
researcher to see if there are any gaps in the information the
questionnaire provides.
 Step 7: Writing and organising the finished
questionnaire.
This is the final step. After the trialling period, evaluate your questionnaire
and decide on your final questions. Ensure the text is clear and that there are
no spelling or grammatical errors or ambiguities in your questionnaire.
 Interviews
There are three types of interviews:

A systematic approach to interviewing

Structure where you ask the same questions you have
d prepared beforehand to everyone in the
same order.

A method that relies on asking participants

Unstructure questions to collect data on a topic. They do
not follow a set pattern and questions are not
d decided upon in advance.

A qualitative research method that combines

Semi- structured
a set of open questions decided beforehand
with the opportunity for the interviewer to
explore particular responses further.
Interviews
Advantages Disadvantages
Structured Easier to make comparisons Hard to build a rapport

Efficient method Limited data

Reduces bias No room to discover more

Quick method to obtain data Limited detail

Unstructured Build up a rapport and the Low reliability

interviewee more at ease

Able to probe further and Risk of asking leading

discover more questions

Reduced risk of bias Time consuming

Very flexible
Semi- structured Allows for open ended Time consuming
responses and follow up for
more detail High risk of bias

Encourages a dialogue Difficult to make

comparisons between
Prepared questions help to respondents
guide the discussion
Difficult to ask good follow
up questions
 Conducting the Interview
An interview has three parts:

• This is when you introduce yourself and try and make

the interviewee feel comfortable and relaxed.
The
• State the purpose of the interview and give an idea of
Opening how long the interview will be.

• This consists of the interview questions and you would

The Main have decided the format of a structured, unstructured
Body or semi structured interview.

Closing the • The interviewer thanks the interviewee and explains

Interview what the next step will be.
 Questioning Techniques
Two professors of educational psychology, Steiner Kvale (1938-2008) and
Svend Brinkmann wrote extensively about conducting interviews. They
identified 9 types of questions that are useful in interviews:

Questions where interviewees can describe a situation or context: e.g. “Can you describe the last
1. Introductory
time you…?”
question
Follow up what an interviewee has said either by asking about what they have just told you or
2. Follow-up questions
encourage them to continue by nodding, waiting for a moment, or saying “mm”.

Where you ask the interviewee to elaborate, e.g. ‘’Can you give me an example?’’ or ‘’Explain
3. Probing questions
that in more detail.’’

If the description is too general ask a specific question, e.g. ‘’What did you do then?’’ or ‘’How did
4. Specifying questions
that make you feel?’’.

A question that is directly related to your research. This is best used later in the interview after
5. Direct questions
the interviewee has given their opinion.

6. Indirect questions A question where you ask indirectly about thearea of study, e.g. ‘’How do you think other people
view this approach?’’

7. Structuring Where you change the topic to get back to what you want to discuss, e.g.‘’Moving on to…’’
questions
Pausing for a second allows the interviewee a moment to think and a chance to add further
8. Silence
information or detail.

This ensures that you have understood and interpreted an answer correctly. It can be a prompt to
9. Interpreting
elaborate, e.g. An example of this is: “Am I right in thinking that your opinion is…?”
questions
 Conducting the Interview
Interview Bias
The interviewer can influence the results of the research project by what is
known as interview bias.
It can happen in many ways:

Take a dislike to a person dependent on their clothes or

physical demeanour. It can also be based on, e.g. a weak
handshake

Give a negative response or facial expression to a comment

leading to the interviewee feeling uncomfortable and unwilling
to elaborate
Using leading questions that encourage a particular answer,
e.g. “I know that every sensible person thinks that early
school starts are a bad idea, but what do you think?”

Emphasis on a particular word or phrase, which leads people

to respond in a certain way, e.g. “Do you like or dislike this
approach?”
Using a closed or open body language for different interviewees
- open and friendly body language will make people relax and
respond more positively than a closed and unfriendly body
language
 Referencing and Bibliography
You should give due credit to any research you have consulted or referenced. Never
pass off someone else’s research as your own. This is known as plagiarism and can
have a negative impact on the credibility of your own research.
At the end of your work produce a Bibliography or a list of works you have
consulted. A popular system is the Havard System. There are online tools which
help with Havard referencing.
For a book that has only one
author
Last name, First initial. (Year published). Title. Edition. (Only include the number of the edition if it is
not the first edition) City published: Publisher, Page(s).

Example (first edition)

Rofe, A. (2003). Research Methodology. Cardiff: Twinkl, p. 23.

Example (other editions)

Rofe, A. (2003). Research Methodology. 2nd Edition Cardiff: Twinkl, p. 23

For a book that has two or more

authors
Last name, First initial. and Last name, First initial. (Year published). Title. City: Publisher, Page(s).

Example

Smith, P. and Davies, J. (2020). An Approach to Research. Sheffield: Twinkl. p 23-45

 Referencing and Bibliography
You should give due credit to any research you have consulted or referenced. Never
pass off someone else’s research as your own. This is known as plagiarism and can
have a negative impact on the credibility of your own research.
At the end of your work produce a Bibliography or a list of works you have
consulted. A popular system is the Havard System. There are online tools which
help with Havard referencing.
For a journal article

Last name, First initial. (Year published). Article title. Journal, Volume (Issue), Page(s).

Example

Williams, M., Hopkins G. and Thomas, H. (1996). ‘A Socio-economic Approach to Industrial Strife
in 19th Century Wales’ Review of Welsh Economic History Research, Vol. 19, pp. 219-274.

For a newspaper article from a

website
Last name, First initial. (Year published). Article title. Newspaper, [online] pages. Available at: url
[Accessed Day Mo. Year].
Example

Twinkl (2023) Women’s World Cup to Break All World Records. Twinkl (online) Available at :
https://www.twinkl.co.uk/newsroom/story/2023-womens-world-cup ( Accessed 20 July 2023)
 Self-reflection
This is an important part of the whole research process and helps improve research
in the future. It can be summarised by reflecting on what went well and what could
be improved. There are three areas to self-reflect upon in the research process:

Planning

Problem Solving

Completing Processes
 Planning
Reflect on how well you did in relation to your planning. Consider:

How well you set your aims and objectives.

Were they met or were there any obstacles?

How well did you meet your targets and

deadlines? How could they have been
improved?

Did you identify all the risks that you came

across?

How well did you use your planning tools and

resources?

How well did you utilise research and data

from a range of sources?
 Problem Solving
Reflect on how well you did in relation to your planning. Consider:

finding information and resources

that helped you complete the project

finding information, factors,

similarities and differences

making a judgement, summary and

presenting your findings based on
your research and referencing the
work of other researchers.
 Completing Processes
Reflect on how well you did in relation to completing processes, consider:

Were you effective in developing the skills

and techniques necessary to finish the
project?

How effective did you manage your time

and were you able to complete within the
deadline?

On reflection are you satisfied with the

quality and presentation of you completed
project?