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Analog Mod 5

The document outlines the course structure and outcomes for a module on Analog Electronics within the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering at an autonomous institution affiliated with VTU. It covers the principles and characteristics of various amplifiers, including BJT and FET amplifiers, as well as power amplifiers and their applications. Additionally, it discusses classifications based on frequency and mode of operation, emphasizing the importance of efficiency and performance metrics in power amplification.

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Analog Mod 5

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An Autonomous Institute

Affiliated to VTU, Belagavi,

Approved by AICTE, New Delhi,
Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B)
Accredited by NBA & NAAC

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

SUBJECT CODE : MVJ19EC33
SUBJECT NAME:ANALOG ELECTRONICS
LECTURE PRESENTATION MODULE – 5

FACULTY : Divya Sugathan , Assistant Prof, Dept.

of ECE .

• Describe the working principle and characteristics of BJT, FET, Single stage,
and Cascaded and feedback amplifiers.

• Calculate the gain and impedance for BJT using h parameter models

• Describe the performance characteristics and parameters of BJT and FET

amplifier using small signal model

• Describe the Phase shift, Wien bridge, tuned and crystal oscillators using
BJT/FET

• Understand the classes of amplifiers and oscillator applications

• Introduction, Classification of output stages, Class A output stage, Class B output

stage:

• Transfer Characteristics,

• Power Dissipation, Power Conversion efficiency,

• Class AB output stage,

• Class C tuned Amplifier.

• Voltage Regulators:

• Discrete transistor voltage regulation 3

• Series and Shunt Voltage regulators.

• A power amplifier is an electronic amplifier designed to increase the magnitude

of power of a given input signal. The power of the input signal is increased to a
level high enough to drive loads of output devices like speakers, headphones, RF
transmitters etc.
• In this case a microphone is used as an input source. The magnitude of signal
from the microphone is not enough for the power amplifier. So first it is pre-
amplified where its voltage and current are increased slightly.
• Finally the signal is passed through a power amplifier and the output from power
amp is fed to a speaker.
5

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Power Amplifiers
• Power amplifier are the basic category of amplifiers which is used to amplify
the power of the input signal which may be either a digital signal or an analog
signal from few milli watts to several milli watts depending on the need of
amplification.

• These types of amplifiers are found in almost every analog to digital devices
surrounding us. From radio tuners to microwave to laptops to cell phones use
power amplifiers in some form or the other.

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Power Amplifiers
• The amplifier that has the property of converting the applied DC power that
comes from the supply into AC power so that the load is provided with the
sufficient amount of power, these types of amplifiers are defined as power
amplifiers.

• In this case of amplifiers, the magnitude of the applied power tends to

increase. Hence these amplifiers are used in various applications where the
power requirement is to drive the load.

• The classification is done based on their frequencies and also based on their
mode of operation.
7

• These are used in varieties of devices such as headphones, microwave ovens,

home theater systems, etc… these are the most important part of the basic
electronics that comes under the category of the consumer’s range and household
needs.

• To control servo motors and the specific DC motors the power amplifiers are
utilized.

• As the wireless transmission requires high-frequency range for the transmission of

the signals over a long distance the power amplification is beneficial in such cases.
Higher the levels of power higher the transfer rate of data and its usability.

• It is also utilized in the types of equipment designed for the communication of the 8

satellites.
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Classification Based on Frequencies

Power amplifiers are divided into two categories, based on the frequencies
they handle. They are as follows.
• Audio Power Amplifiers − The audio power amplifiers raise the power
level of signals that have audio frequency range (20 Hz to 20 KHz). They
are also known as Small signal power amplifiers.
• Radio Power Amplifiers − Radio Power Amplifiers or tuned power
amplifiers raise the power level of signals that have radio frequency range
(3 KHz to 300 GHz). They are also known as large signal power
amplifiers.
9

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Classification Based on Mode of
Operation
On the basis of the mode of operation, i.e., the portion of the input cycle during
which collector current flows, the power amplifiers may be classified as follows.
• Class A Power amplifier − When the collector current flows at all times
during the full cycle of signal, the power amplifier is known as class A power
amplifier. The output signal varies for a full 360° of the input signal.
• Class B Power amplifier − When the collector current flows only during the
positive half cycle of the input signal, the power amplifier is known as class B
power amplifier. The output signal varies for a full 180° of the input signal.
• Class C Power amplifier − When the collector current flows for less than
half cycle of the input signal, the power amplifier is known as class C power
10
amplifier. The output signal varies for less than 180° of the input signal.

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Classification Based on Mode of
Operation
• Class AB Power amplifier : An amplifier may be biased at a dc level above the
zero-base-current level of class B and above one-half the supply voltage level of
class A; this bias condition is class AB. For class AB operation, the output signal
swing occurs between 180° and 360° and is neither class A nor class B operation.

• Class D Power amplifier : This operating class is a form of amplifier operation

using pulse (digital) signals, which are on for a short interval and off for a longer
interval. Using digital techniques makes it possible to obtain a signal that varies
over the full cycle (using sample and- hold circuitry) to recreate the output from
many pieces of input signal. The major advantage of class D operation is that the
amplifier is “on” (using power) only for short intervals and the overall efficiency 11

can practically be very high.

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Classes
Collector current waveforms for transistors operating in (a) class A, (b)
class B, (c) class AB, and (d) class C amplifier stages.

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Factors to be considered in large signal
amplifiers
• Output power

• Distortion

• Operating region

• Thermal considerations

• Efficiency

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• Amplification
• Linearity
• Gain

 Since large-signal, or power, amplifiers handle relatively large voltage signals

and current levels, the main factors are:

• Efficiency
• Maximum power capability
15
• Impedance matching to the output device

The ratio of a.c. output power to the zero signal power (i.e. d.c. power) supplied
by the battery of a power amplifier is known as collector efficiency.

Distortion

The change of output wave shape from the input wave shape of an amplifier is
known as distortion.

Power dissipation capability

The ability of a power transistor to dissipate heat is known as power dissipation

capability. 16

• If the collector current flows at all times during the full cycle of the signal, the
power amplifier is known as class A power amplifier.

• If the Q point is placed near the center, class A operation results. Because the
transistor will conduct for the complete 360, distortion is low for small signals
and conversion efficiency is low.

• Series fed

There is no transformer in the circuit. RL is in series with V cc. There is DC

power drop across RL. Therefore efficiency = 25% (maximum).

• Transformer coupled

The load is coupled through a transformer. DC drop across the primary of

the transformer is negligible. There is no DC drop across RL. Therefore
efficiency = 50% maximum.

Transistor characteristic showing load line

Series-fed class A large- and Q-point.
signal
amplifier. 22

• The simple fixed-bias circuit connection shown in Fig can be used as a class A
series-fed amplifier.

• The only differences between this circuit and the small-signal version is that
the signals handled by the large signal circuit are in the range of volts, and the
transistor used is a power transistor that is capable of operating in the range
of a few to tens of watts.

• The beta of a power transistor is generally less than 100, the overall amplifier
circuit using power transistors that are capable of handling large power or
current while not providing much voltage gain. 23

with the collector current then being

with the collector–emitter voltage then

• A dc load line is drawn using the values of VCC and RC .

The intersection of the dc bias value of IB with the dc
load line then determines the operating point (Q -
point) for the circuit.

• If the dc bias collector current is set at one-half the

possible signal swing (between 0 and VCC/RC ), the
largest collector current swing will be possible.

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AC Operation
• When an input ac signal is applied to the amplifier , the output will vary from its dc
bias operating voltage and current.

• A small input signal, will cause the base current to vary above and below the dc bias
point, which will then cause the collector current (output) to vary from the dc bias
point set as well as the collector–emitter voltage to vary around its dc bias value.

• As the input signal is made larger, the output will vary further around the established
dc bias point until either the current or the voltage reaches a limiting condition.

• For the current this limiting condition is either zero current at the low end or VCC/RC
at the high end of its swing. For the collector–emitter voltage, the limit is either 0 V
or the supply voltage, VCC .
26

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Power Considerations
• The power into an amplifier is provided by the supply voltage. With no input
signal, the dc current drawn is the collector bias current ICQ. The power then
drawn from the supply is

• Even with an ac signal applied, the average current drawn from the supply
remains equal to the quiescent current ICQ, so that above equation represents
28
the input power supplied to the class A series-fed amplifier.

• Efficiency
The efficiency of an amplifier represents the amount of ac power delivered
transferred from the dc source. The efficiency of the amplifier is calculated using

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Maximum Efficiency
For the class A series-fed amplifier, the maximum efficiency can be
determined using the maximum voltage and current swings. For the voltage
swing it is
maximum VCE(p-p) = VCC
For the current swing it is
maximum IC(p-p) =VCC/RC

Using the maximum voltage swing

The maximum efficiency of a class A series-fed amplifier is thus seen to be 25%.

Since this maximum efficiency will occur only for ideal conditions of both voltage
swing and current swing, most series-fed circuits will provide efficiencies of much 31

less than 25%.

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Advantages, Disadvantages of Class A
Amplifiers
Advantages of Class A power amplifier
• The current flows for complete input cycle

• It can amplify small signals

• The output is same as input

• No distortion is present

Disadvantages of Class A Amplifiers

• Low power output

• Low collector efficiency

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Numerical
Calculate the input and output power for the circuit of Fig. The input signal
results in a base current of 5 mA rms.
14.42 mA

= 576.8mA

= 8.76

200mA
= 640mW
33

= 10.3824W
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Numerical
If the circuit of Fig. is biased at its center voltage and center collector
operating point, what is the input power for a maximum output power of 1.5
W?

=1.125 A
Hence
=0.5625A

=10.125 watt

• Single transistor can only conduct in one direction.

• D.C. bias current is needed to cope with negative going signals.

• 75 % (or more) of the supplied power is dissipated by d.c.

• Solution : eliminate the bias current.

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Class A
• Class A amplifiers have very low distortion (lowest distortion occurs when
the volume is low)They are very inefficient and are rarely used for high
power designs.

• The distortion is low because the transistors in the amp are biased such that
they are half "on" when the amp is idling .

• As a result of being half on at idle, a lot of power is dissipated in the devices

even when the amp has no music playing!

• Class A amps are often used for "signal" level circuits (where power
requirements are small) because they maintain low distortion.
36

• The first is circuit simplicity.

• The signal is subjected to comparatively little amplification, resulting in an

open loop gain which is generally fairly low.

• This means that very little overall feedback is used, so stability and phase
should be excellent over the audio frequencies.

• Do not require any frequency compensation.

• No cross over distortion

• No switching distortion

• Lower harmonic distortion in the voltage amplifier

• Lower harmonic distortion in the current amplifier

• No signal dependent distortion from the power supply

• Constant and low output impedance

• Simpler design

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TRANSFORMER-COUPLED CLASS A
AMPLIFIER
• A form of class A amplifier having maximum efficiency of 50% uses a
transformer to couple the output signal to the load as shown in Fig.

• A transformer can increase or decrease voltage or current levels according to

the turns ratio.

• In addition, the impedance connected to one side of a transformer can be

made to appear either larger or smaller (step up or step down) at the other
side of the transformer, depending on the square of the transformer winding
turns ratio.

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TRANSFORMER-COUPLED CLASS A
AMPLIFIER
Voltage Transformation
• The transformer can step up or step down a voltage applied to one side
directly as the ratio of the turns (or number of windings) on each side. The
voltage transformation is given by Equation

Current Transformation
• The current in the secondary winding is inversely proportional to the number
of turns in the windings. The current transformation is given by

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TRANSFORMER-COUPLED CLASS A
AMPLIFIER
Impedance Transformation
• The impedance is changed by the transformer when viewed at the primary side
(RL). This can be shown as follows:

or where a is the turns ratio of the transformer

The load resistance reflected to the primary side as
where RL is the reflected impedance.

• The reflected impedance is related directly to the square of the turns ratio.
• If the number of turns of the secondary is smaller than that of the primary, the
impedance seen looking into the primary is larger than that of the secondary by 42
the square of the turns ratio.
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TRANSFORMER-COUPLED CLASS A
AMPLIFIER
Operation of Amplifier Stage

DC Load Line:
• The transformer (dc) winding resistance determines the dc load line for the
circuit.
• Typically, this dc resistance is small (ideally 0 ohm) .
• There is no dc voltage drop across the 0-ohm dc load resistance, and the load
line is drawn straight vertically from the voltage point, VCEQ = VCC. (In an ideal
transformer, there is no voltage drop in primary so V CEQ = VCC )

Quiescent Operating Point

• The operating point can be obtained graphically at the point of intersection
of the dc load line and the base current set by the circuit.
• A operation, keep in mind that the dc bias point sets the conditions for the 43
maximum undistorted signal swing for both collector current and collector–
emitter voltage
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TRANSFORMER-COUPLED CLASS A
AMPLIFIER
AC Load Line
• To carry out ac analysis, it is necessary
to calculate the ac load resistance
“seen” looking into the primary side of
the transformer, then draw the ac load
line on the collector characteristic.
• The reflected load resistance (RL’) is
calculated using the value of the load
connected across the secondary ( RL )
and the turns ratio of the transformer.
Load lines for class A transformer-coupled amplifier.
44

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TRANSFORMER-COUPLED CLASS A
AMPLIFIER
• The graphical analysis technique then proceeds as follows. Draw the ac load
line so that it passes through the operating point and has a slope equal to
-1/RL’ (the reflected load resistance), the load line slope being the negative
reciprocal of the ac load resistance.

• Notice that the ac load line shows that the output signal swing can exceed the
value of VCC. It is therefore necessary after obtaining the ac load line to check
that the possible voltage swing does not exceed transistor maximum ratings.

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TRANSFORMER-COUPLED CLASS A
AMPLIFIER
Signal Swing and Output AC Power
• T he values of the peak-to-peak signal swings are

• Under maximum capacity of class A amplifier, voltage swings from (Vce)max to

zero and current from (Ic)max to zero.
Hence

• The input power under dc condition will be

• Therefore,

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TRANSFORMER-COUPLED CLASS A
AMPLIFIER
Power Dissipated
• The only power loss considered is that dissipated by the power transistor and
calculated using

Advantages

• No loss of signal power in the base or collector resistors.

• Excellent impedance matching is achieved.

• Gain is high.

• DC isolation is provided.
48

• Hum noise is introduced by transformers.

• Transformers are bulky and costly.

• Poor frequency response.

Applications
• This circuit is where impedance matching is the main criterion.

• These are used as driver amplifiers and sometimes as output amplifiers.

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Comparison of Series fed and
Transformer coupled Class A Amplifier
Series fed Class A Amplifier Transformer coupled Class A Amplifier
Load is directly connected in collector , no transformer Output transformer is used to connect the load.
is used
Simple to design and implement. Complicated to design.
The output impedance is high hence can not be used Low impedance matching is possible due to
for low impedance transformer.
Load resistance carries ICQ hence considerable wastage The ICQ flows through primary of transformer which
of power. has zero d.c. resistance .Hence power wastage is less.
Less number of components required. More number of components required.
The circuit is not heavier bulkier and costlier. It is heavier bulkier and costlier because of the
presence of transformer.
Efficiency is 25%. Efficiency is 50%.
Frequency response is better. Frequency response is low.

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Quiz

• https://
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aL1aP6NLvkoDNoZ7-7FUQTUxRDhMNkZINjlHQTVTN1lBTk5CM0pDMy4u

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Class B amplifier operation
• The biasing of the transistor in class B operation is in such a way that at zero
signal condition, there will be no collector current.

• The operating point is selected to be at collector cut off voltage. So, when
the signal is applied, only the positive half cycle is amplified at the output.

• To obtain output for the full cycle of signal, it is necessary to use two
transistors and have each conduct on opposite half-cycles, the combined
operation providing a full cycle of output signal.

• Since one part of the circuit pushes the signal high during one half-cycle and
the other part pulls the signal low during the other half-cycle, the circuit is
52
referred to as a push–pull circuit .

• An ac input signal is applied to the push–

pull circuit, with each half operating on
alternate half-cycles, the load then
receiving a signal for the full ac cycle.
• The power transistors used in the push–pull
circuit are capable of delivering the desired
power to the load, and the class B
operation of these transistors provides
greater efficiency than was possible using
a single transistor in class A operation. 53

• The power supplied to the load by an amplifier is drawn from the power supply.
The amount of this input power can be calculated using

where Idc - average or dc current drawn from the power supplies.

• In class B operation, the current drawn from a single power supply has the form
of a full-wave rectified signal, whereas that drawn from two power supplies has
the form of a half-wave rectified signal from each supply. In either case, the
value of the average current drawn can be expressed as
54

where I(p) is the peak value of the output current waveform.

(a) using two voltage supplies (b) using one voltage supply
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Class B amplifier
Output (AC) Power

• The power delivered to the load can be calculated as

• The power delivered to the load using the measured peak or peak-to-peak output
voltage can be used:

56
• The larger the rms or peak output voltage, the larger is the power delivered to
the load.
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Efficiency
• The efficiency of the class B amplifier can be calculated using the basic
equation

• The higher is the circuit efficiency, up to a maximum value when VL(p) = VCC,
this maximum efficiency then being

• The power dissipated (as heat) by the output power transistors is the
difference between the input power delivered by the supplies and the output
power delivered to the load,

where P2Q is the power dissipated by the two output power transistors.

• The dissipated power handled by each transistor is then

• The corresponding peak ac current I(p) is then

• Hence the maximum value of average current from the power supply is

• Using this current to calculate the maximum value of input power results in
59

• When the input signal results in less than the maximum output signal swing,
the circuit efficiency is less than 78.5%.

• For class B operation, the maximum power dissipated by the output transistors
does not occur at the maximum power input or output condition.

• The maximum power dissipated by the two output transistors occurs when
the output voltage across the load is

• Maximum transistor power dissipation is given by

Advantages

• As there is no need of center tapped transformers, the weight and cost

are reduced.

• Equal and opposite input signal voltages are not required.

Disadvantages

• It is difficult to get a pair of transistors (NPN and PNP) that have similar
characteristics.

• We require both positive and negative supply voltages

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Numerical
For a class B amplifier providing a 22-V peak signal to an 8- load and a power
supply of
VCC = 25 V, determine: a. Input power. b. Output power. c. Circuit efficiency.
Sol: The peak load current
= 2.75

The dc value of the current drawn from the power supply is then
=1.75

Input power delivered by the supply voltage is

= 43.75 The efficiency
The output power delivered to the load is
= 69.14% 64

=30.25
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Numerical
For a class B amplifier with VCC = 25 V driving an 8- load, determine:
a. Maximum input power. b. Maximum output power. c. Maximum
circuit efficiency.
d. Transistor dissipation.
Sol:
=39.06 W

= 49.74 W

= 78.53%

The maximum power dissipated by each transistor is 65

= 24.9 W
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Numerical
Calculate the efficiency of a class B amplifier for a supply voltage of
VCC = 22 V driving a 4- load with peak output voltages of: a.
VL(p) = 20 V. b. VL(p) = 4 V.
Sol: Using Eq.

a) η = 71.4%

b) η = 14.25%

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CLASS B AMPLIFIER CIRCUITS
• For obtaining class B amplifier the input signals to the amplifier could be a
single signal, the circuit then providing two different output stages, each
operating for one-half the cycle.
• Polarity or phase inversion can easily be obtained by using a transformer, or
using an op-amp having two opposite outputs or using a few op-amp stages to
obtain two opposite-polarity signals. An opposite-polarity operation can also
be achieved using a single input and complementary transistors ( npn and pnp
, or n MOS and p MOS).

• Figure a shows a center-tapped transformer to

provide opposite-phase signals. If the transformer is
exactly center-tapped, the two signals are exactly
opposite in phase and of the same magnitude.

• The circuit of Fig. b uses a BJT stage with in-phase

output from the emitter and opposite-phase output
from the collector. If the gain is made nearly 1 for
each output, the same magnitude results. 68

• Fig c. uses op-amp stages, one to provide an inverting gain of unity and the
other a noninverting gain of unity, to provide two outputs of the same
magnitude but of opposite phase.

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CLASS B AMPLIFIER CIRCUITS
Transformer-Coupled Push–Pull Circuits
• The circuit of Fig. uses a center-tapped input
transformer to produce opposite-polarity signals
• During the first half-cycle of operation,
 Q1 is driven into conduction Q2 is driven off.
 I1 through the transformer results in the first
half cycle
• During the second half-cycle of the input signal,
 Q2 conducts, Q1 stays off,
 I2 through the transformer resulting in the
second half cycle
• The overall signal developed across the load then
varies over the full cycle of signal operation. 70

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CLASS B AMPLIFIER CIRCUITS
Complementary-Symmetry Circuits
• Using complementary transistors ( npn and pnp ) it is possible to obtain a full
cycle output across a load using half-cycles of operation from each transistor,
• The npn transistor will be biased into conduction by the positive half-cycle of
signal, and during the negative half-cycle of signal, the pnp transistor is biased
into conduction.
• During a complete cycle of the input, a complete cycle of output signal is
developed across the load.
• Disadvantage of the circuit is
 the need for two separate voltage supplies.
 crossover distortion in the output signal

• During Positive half cycle During Negative half cycle

Crossover distortion

• Crossover distortion refers to the fact that during the signal crossover
from positive to negative (or vice versa) there is some nonlinearity in
the output signal.

• This results from the fact that the circuit does not provide exact
switching of one transistor off and the other on at the zero-voltage
condition. Both transistors may be partially off so that the output
voltage does not follow the input around the zero-voltage condition.

• Biasing the transistors in class AB improves this operation by biasing 73

both transistors to be on for more than half a cycle.

• A small VBE is needed to turn on a transistor

• Q1 actually only conducts when vin > 0.7 V

• Q2 actually only conducts when vin < -0.7 V

• When 0.7 > vin > -0.7, nothing conducts and the
output is zero.
• i.e. the input-output relationship is not at all linear.

• Class B amplifiers are used in low cost designs or designs where sound
quality is not that important.

• Class B amplifiers are significantly more efficient than class A amps.

• They suffer from bad distortion when the signal level is low (the distortion in
this region of operation is called "crossover distortion").

• Class B is used most often where economy of design is needed.

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Class AB Amplifier
• Class AB is probably the most common amplifier class currently used in home
stereo and similar amplifiers. Class AB amplifier combine the advantages of class
A and B amplifier.

• They have the improved efficiency of class B amplifier and distortion performance
that is a lot closer to that of a class A B amplifier.

• The AB classification of amplifier is currently one of the most common used types
of audio power amplifier design.

• The class AB amplifier is a variation of a class B amplifier eliminating the

crossover distortion problems of the previous class B amplifier.
78

• Class AB amplifier can be made from a standard Class B push–pull stage by

biasing both switching transistors into slight conduction, even when no input
signal is present.

• The 0.6 to 0.7V (one forward diode volt drop) dead band that produces the
crossover distortion effect in Class B amplifiers is greatly reduced by the use
of suitable biasing.

• The pre-biasing of the transistor devices can be achieved in a number of

different ways using either a preset voltage bias, a voltage divider network, or
by using a series connected diode arrangement. 79

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Engineered for Tomorrow
Class AB Amplifier Voltage Biasing
• Crossover distortion can be virtually eliminated by
biasing the complementary output transistor with
small nonzero current.
• A bias voltage VBIAS is applied between TR1 and TR2
hence there will be a region where both transistors
will be conducting.
• When the input signal goes positive,
 Voltage at the base of TR1 increases and an
equal and opposite decrease in the conduction
of TR2 as a result, transistor TR2 eventually
turns off
 Hence producing a positive output of a similar
amount during the positive half cycle.
• For the negative half of the input voltage the
opposite occurs.
 TR2 conducts sinking the load current
80
while TR1 turns off.
 The input signal becomes more negative. https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/amplifier/class-ab-amplifier.html

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Class AB Amplifier Resistor Biasing
• The four resistances R1 to R4 are connected
across the supply voltage Vcc to provide the
required resistive biasing.

• The two resistors, R1 and R4 are chosen to set

the Q-point slightly above cut-off with the correct
value of VBE being set at about 0.6V so that the
voltage drops across the resistive network brings
the base of TR1 to about 0.6V, and that of TR2 to
about –0.6V.

• Then the total voltage drop across biasing

resistors R2 and R3 is approximately 1.2 volts,
81
which is just below the value required to turn
each transistor fully-on.
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Class AB Amplifier Diode Biasing
• A small constant current flows through the series
circuit of R1-D1-D2-R2, producing voltage drops
which are symmetrical either side of the input.
• As current flows through the chain, there is a
forward bias voltage drop of
approximately 0.7V across the diodes which is
applied to the base-emitter junctions of the
switching transistors.
• Therefore the voltage drop across the diodes,
biases the base of transistor TR1 to about 0.7
volts, and the base of transistor TR2 to about –
0.7 volts.
• Thus the two silicon diodes provide a constant 82
voltage drop of approximately 1.4 volts between
the two bases biasing them above cut-off.
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Benefits of Class AB Amplifiers

• The advantage of this small bias voltage, provided by series diodes or

resistors, is that the crossover distortion created by the class B amplifier
characteristics is overcome, without the inefficiencies of the class A amplifier
design.

• So the class AB amplifier is a good compromise between class A and class B in

terms of efficiency and linearity, with conversion efficiencies reaching about
50% to 60%.

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Class C
• The Class C Amplifier design has the greatest efficiency but the poorest linearity of
the classes of amplifiers mentioned here. The previous classes, A, B and AB are
considered linear amplifiers, as the output signals amplitude and phase are linearly
related to the input signals amplitude and phase.

• However, the class C amplifier is heavily biased so that the output current is zero for
more than one half of an input sinusoidal signal cycle with the transistor idling at its
cut-off point. In other words, the conduction angle for the transistor is significantly
less than 180 degrees, and is generally around the 90 degrees area.

• While this form of transistor biasing gives a much improved efficiency of around 80%
to the amplifier, it introduces a very heavy distortion of the output signal. Therefore,
class C amplifiers are not suitable for use as audio amplifiers. 84

• Class C amplifiers operate the output transistor in a state that results in

tremendous distortion (it would be totally unsuitable for audio reproduction).

• Due to its heavy audio distortion, class C amplifiers are commonly used in high
frequency sine wave oscillators and certain types of radio frequency
amplifiers, where the pulses of current produced at the amplifiers output can
be converted to complete sine waves of a particular frequency by the use of
LC resonant circuits in its collector circuit
85

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Class C Amplifier
• When the collector current flows for less than half cycle of the input signal, the
power amplifier is known as class C power amplifier.

• The efficiency of class C amplifier is high while linearity is poor. The conduction
angle for class C is less than 180 o. It is generally around 90o, which means the
transistor remains idle for more than half of the input signal. So, the output
current will be delivered for less time compared to the application of input signal.

• This kind of biasing gives a much improved efficiency of around 80% to the
amplifier, but introduces heavy distortion in the output signal. Using the class C
amplifier, the pulses produced at its output can be converted to complete sine
wave of a particular frequency by using LC circuits in its collector circuit.
86

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Class C Amplifier
• Biasing resistor Rb pulls the base of Q1 further downwards and the Q-
point will be set some way below the cut-off point in the DC load line.

• As a result the transistor will start conducting only after the input
signal amplitude has risen above the base emitter voltage (Vbe~0.7V)
plus the downward bias voltage caused by Rb. That is the reason why
the major portion of the input signal is absent in the output signal.

• Inductor L1 and capacitor C1 forms a tank circuit which aids in the

extraction of the required signal from the pulsed output of the
transistor. Actual job of the active element (transistor) here is to
produce a series of current pulses according to the input and make it
flow through the resonant circuit. Values of L1 and C1 are so selected 88

that the resonant circuit oscillates in the frequency of the input signal.
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Class C Output Voltage

• In class C the transistor is biased such that it remains off for no signal and
operates in saturation region.

• When Transistor off current through it is very small and Power dissipation is
also very small.

• When in saturation voltage across it is very small and hence power dissipation
also small

• Its is nonlinear and produce distorted output.

Schematic Diagram of a Class C amplifier

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Class C amplifier Input & output
waveform
Input and waveform at the collector terminal of Class C
amplifier

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Efficiency of Class C Ampilifier
Output waveform of the circuit
Model of class C amplifier for
calculating efficiency

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Efficiency of Class C Amplifier
• When transistor off ,the switch is open is given by
Vc(t)=VCEsat+Vmcos(ɷt)

• When transistor is on ,switch is closed

Vc(t)=VCEsat
• The class C amplifier average value of Vc(t) must be 0,as the resistance of coil
is approximately 0,hence

• Power dissipated by transistor is given by

• AC output power is given

• The efficiency is given by

• As VCEsat << Vcc ,the efficiency of class C amplifier is very high.

• Efficiency is above 90%
94

• Excellent in RF applications.

• Lowest physical size for a given power output.

Disadvantages
• Not suitable in audio applications.

• Creates a lot of RF interference.

• It is difficult to obtain ideal inductors and coupling transformers.

• Reduced dynamic range.

• Lowest linearity.

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Applications of Class C power amplifier

• RF oscillators.

• RF amplifier.

• FM transmitters.

• Booster amplifiers.

• High frequency repeaters.

• Tuned amplifiers etc

Amplifier Conduction
Description
Class Angle

Class-A Full cycle 360o of Conduction θ = 2π

Half cycle 180o of

Class-B θ=π
Conduction
Slightly more than 180o of
Class-AB π < θ < 2π
conduction
Slightly less than 180o of
Class-C θ<π
conduction

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Comparison
Class A Class A Class B Class AB Class C
(series) (Transform
er)
Near Cut- Below the cut-
Q Point Vcc/2 Vcc Near Cut-off
off off point
Max O/P
Vcc 2Vcc Vcc Vcc Vm=π (VCC-VCEsat)
Voltage
Efficienc
25 50 78.4 78.4 Near 90
y (%)
Conducti π
2π 2π π < θ < 2π Less than π
on Angle
Removes
Distortio
Low Low Crossover Crossover High
n
distortion
Linearity Linear o/p Linear o/p Low Low Lowest
98

Input
power

Output
Power

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Voltage Regulators
• For a Power supply to produce a constant output voltage, irrespective of the
input voltage variations or the load current variations, there is a need for a
voltage regulator.

• A voltage regulator is such a device that maintains constant output voltage,

instead of any kind of fluctuations in the input voltage being applied or any
variations in current, drawn by the load. The following image gives an idea of
what a practical regulator looks like.

100
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Block diagram showing parts of a power
supply
• The ac voltage, typically 120 Vrms, is connected to a transformer, which steps
that ac voltage down to the level for the desired dc output.
• A diode rectifier then provides a full-wave rectified voltage, which is initially
filtered by a basic capacitor filter to produce a dc voltage.
• A regulator circuit can use this dc input to provide a dc voltage that not only has
much less ripple voltage, but also remains at the same dc value even if the input
dc voltage varies somewhat or the load connected to the output dc voltage
changes.
• This voltage regulation is usually obtained using one of a number of popular
voltage regulator IC units.

101

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Voltage Regulators
A voltage regulator is an integrated circuit (IC) that provides a constant fixed
output voltage regardless of a change in the load or input voltage.

Types of Voltage Regulators

• Basically, there are two types of Voltage regulators:

 Linear voltage regulator

 Series

 Shunt.

 Switching voltage regulator.

 Step up

 Step down 102

 Inverter voltage regulators.

• A linear voltage regulator works by automatically adjusting the resistance

via a feedback loop, accounting for changes in both load and input, all while
keeping the output voltage constant.

• Switching regulators, on the other hand, such as buck (step-down), boost

(step-up) and buck-boost (step-up/step-down), require a few more components
as well as an increased complexity of how various components will affect the
output.

• Switching regulators are far more efficient in terms of power conversion where
efficiency plays a big role, but linear regulators work very well as voltage 103

regulators in low-voltage applications

Some Applications of Voltage Regulators

• Use in all power supplies to electronic gadgets to regulate voltage and save
the device from damage.

• Used with the alternator of internal combustion engines to regulate the

alternator output.

• Used for electronics circuits to supply a precise amount of voltage

• A generator to keep the line voltage steady as the load changes.

• Solar cell installations to accommodate the huge voltage change as sunlight

104
changes.
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Voltage Regulators
• Zener diode regulator : For low current power supplies - a simple voltage
regulator can be made with a resistor and a zener diode connected in reverse.

105

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Two basic categories of voltage regulation are:

• line regulation

• load regulation

• The purpose of line regulation is to maintain a nearly constant output

voltage when the input voltage varies.

• The purpose of load regulation is to maintain a nearly constant output

voltage when the load varies.

106

107
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Line regulation:
• Line regulation: A change in input (line) voltage does not significantly affect
the output voltage of a regulator (within certain limits).

• Line regulation can be defined as the percentage change in the output voltage
for a given change in the input voltage.
• Δ means “a change in”

Line regulation can be calculated using the following

formula:

108

109

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Load Regulation
• Load regulation: A change in load current (due to a varying RL) has practically
no effect on the output voltage of a regulator (within certain limits)

• Load regulation can be defined as the percentage change in the output

voltage from no-load (NL) to full-load (FL).

Where:
VNL = the no-load output voltage
VFL = the full-load output voltage
110
• The load regulation can be expressed as a percentage change in output
voltage for each mA change in load current.
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Load Regulation

Using ROUT, Thevenin equivalent circuit for a power supply with a load
resistor.

111
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• Rearrange the equation:

112

• Two basic types of linear regulator are the series regulator and the shunt
regulator .

• The series regulator is connected in series with the load and the shunt
regulator is connected in parallel with the load.

113

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Discrete Transistor Voltage Regulation
• Two types of transistor voltage regulators are the series voltage regulator and
the shunt voltage regulator. Each type of circuit can provide an output dc
voltage that is regulated or maintained at a set value even if the input voltage
varies or if the load connected to the output changes.

• Series Voltage Regulation

114

• The output voltage is sampled by a circuit that provides a feedback voltage to

be compared to a reference voltage.
 If the output voltage increases, the comparator circuit provides a control
signal to cause the series control element to decrease the amount of the
output voltage—there by maintaining the output voltage.
 If the output voltage decreases, the comparator circuit provides a control
signal to cause the series control element to increase the amount of the
output voltage.

115

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Series Regulator Circuit
• A simple series regulator circuit is shown in Fig. Transistor Q 1 is the series
control element, and Zener diode DZ provides the reference voltage.

116

The regulating operation can be described as follows:

• If the output voltage decreases, the increased base-emitter voltage causes

transistor Q1 to conduct more, thereby raising the output voltage—
maintaining the output constant.

• If the output voltage increases, the decreased base-emitter voltage causes

transistor Q1 to conduct less, thereby reducing the output voltage—
maintaining the output constant.

117

The response of the pass-transistor to a change in load resistance as follows:

• If load resistance increases, load voltage also increases.

• Since the Zener voltage is constant, the increase in Vo causes V BE to

decrease.

• The decrease in VBE reduces conduction through the pass- transistor, so

load current decreases.
• This offsets the increase in load resistance, and a relatively constant load 118

voltage is maintained
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Numerical
• Calculate the output voltage and Zener diode current in the regulator circuit of
Fig.
Sol:
= 8.3-0.7 =7.6 V

= 15 -7.6= 7.4 V

= 3.8mA

= 38μA
119

= 3.682mA
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Op-Amp Series Regulator

120

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Op-Amp Series Regulator
• The resistor R1 and R2 sense a change in the output voltage and provide a
feedback voltage. The error detector compares the feedback voltage with a
Zener diode reference voltage.

• The resulting difference voltage causes the transistor Q1 controls the

conduction to compensate the variation of the output voltage. The output
voltage will be maintained at a constant value of:

121

122

A shunt voltage regulator provides regulation by shunting current away

from the load to regulate the output voltage. Figure shows the block
diagram of such a voltage regulator.
123

• Some of the current is pulled away by the control element.

• If the load voltage tries to change due to a change in the load resistance, the sampling
circuit provides a feedback signal to a comparator.

• The resulting difference voltage then provides a control signal to vary the amount of the
current shunted away from the load to maintain the regulated output voltage across the
load.

• As the output voltage tries to get larger the sampling circuit provides a feedback signal to
the comparator circuit, which then provides a control signal to draw increased shunt
124
current, providing less load current, thereby keeping the regulated voltage from rising.

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Transistor Shunt Regulator
A basic shunt regulator circuit is shown in Fig. Resistor R S drops the unregulated
voltage by an amount that depends on the current supplied to the load R L .

125

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Transistor Shunt Regulator
• The control element is a transistor, in parallel with the load. While, the resistor, R S, is in
series with the load.

• The operation of the transistor shunt regulator is similar to that of the transistor series
regulator, except that regulation is achieved by controlling the current through the
parallel transistor

• Resistor RS drops the unregulated voltage depends on current supplied to load RL.

• Voltage across the load is set by zener diode and transistor base-emitter voltage.

• If RL decrease, a reduced drive current to base of Q1 -> shunting less collector

current.

• Load current, IL is larger, maintaining the regulated voltage across load. 126

• The output voltage to the load is

V = VZ +to V
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Numerical
• Determine the regulated voltage and circuit currents for the shunt regulator of
Fig.
Sol: The load voltage is
VL = VZ + VBE =10.7 V

=107mA

With the unregulated input voltage at 15V, the current through RS is

= 0.1303A

The collector current is 127

IC = IS - IL = 23.3mA
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Op-Amp Shunt Regulator

128

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Op-Amp Shunt Regulator
• When the output voltage tries to decrease due to a change in input voltage or
load current caused by a change in load resistance, the decrease is sensed by
R1 and R2.

• A feedback voltage obtained from voltage divider R1 and R2 is applied to the

op-amp’s non-inverting input and compared to the Zener voltage to control
the drive current to the transistor.

• The current through resistor RS is thus controlled to drop a voltage across RS

so that the output voltage is maintained.

129

• The loud speaker of 8 ohm is connected to the secondary of the output

transformer of a class A amplifier circuit. The quiescent collector current is
140mA.The turns ration of the transformer is 3:1.The collector supply voltage
is 10V.If AC power delivered to the loudspeaker is 0.48W,assume ideal
transformer,calculate:
(i)Power developed across primary (ii)RMS value of load voltage
(iii)RMS value of primary voltage (iv)RMS value of load current
(v)RMS value of primary current (vi)The DC power input
(vii)The efficiency (viii)The power dissipation
Sol:

130
= 72Ω

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Numerical
i) As ideal transformer the power delivered to the load is same as the power
developed across the transistor
Pac= 0.48W

ii)

R.M.S value of the load voltage is

iii) RMS value of primary voltage

131

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Numerical
iv) RMS value of load current
The power delivered to the load = I22rmsxRL
0.48 = I22rmsx8
I2rms = 0.2449A
v) RMS value of primary current

Hence

vi) The DC power input

132

viii) The power dissipation

133

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gRcE2t_28co

• https://nptel.ac.in/courses/108/102/108102095/

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3l_9NEh4Nz8

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=huDZjQcEBMg

• https://nptel.ac.in/courses/117/106/117106087/

• https://nptel.ac.in/courses/108/106/108106159/

134

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2WLM_Rjt5T0

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nLMC8j_8ys4

135

https://forms.gle/fxkoaf3yMAr2HCfi8

136

1) In the power amplifier given, Vcc = 12V, RC = 100Ω,hFE = 60, and VBE = 0.7V.
Determine
a) The value of RB that locates the Q point in the center of the load line.
b) The maximum output power.

137
http://ampdesigns.tripod.com/solved_problems.htm

VCE = (vCC/ 2) = (12 / 2) = 6V

IC = (6 / 100) = 60mA

Because IB = (IC / hFE),

IB = (60 / 60) = 1mA

Writing a voltage equation for the base circuit, we have

VCC = IBRB + VBE

Solving for RB,

RB = [(VCC − VBE) / IB]

138
= [(12 – 0.7) / 1] = 11.3kΩ

= [(122) / (8 × 100)] = 180 mW

The power dissipated in a transistor, PD, is equal to the product of the

quiescent collector voltage (VCE) and current (IC). In the previous

example, PD + VCEIC = 6V × 60mA = 360 Mw

• In the absence of an input signal, maximum power is dissipated as heat in the

collector of a transistor operating in class A. Care must be
exercised, therefore, to ensure that the maximum power rating of a transistor
139
is not exceeded under "no−input" conditions

• Determine the harmonic distortion components for an output signal having

fundamental amplitude of 2.5 V, second harmonic amplitude of 0.25 V, third
harmonic amplitude of 0.1 V, and fourth harmonic amplitude of 0.05 V. (RBT
LEVEL:L5)

• Compare the various power amplifier classes with respect to its operating
cycle, position of Q-point and efficiency(RBT LEVEL:L5)

• Draw the circuit diagram of a basic transistor shunt regulator and write the
expression for output voltage. Determine the regulated voltage and circuit
currents: IZ, IC and IL if Rs=120Ω, RL=100Ω, VZ=8.2V and Vi=22V. (RBT 140

LEVEL:L5)
An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi.
Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B) status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
140
Questions
• What is voltage regulator? With a neat circuit explain series voltage regulator
using transistors.

• What are the different types of power amplifiers? Show that The maximum
conversion gain of transformer coupled class A amplifier is 50%.

• With a neat circuit diagram and waveforms derive an expression for

conversion gain of Class B push pull amplifier.

141

• Sketch ac load line in case of class A power amplifier

• Sketch ac load line in case of class B power amplifier

• Sketch cross over distortion.

• Describe the cross over efficiency of class B push-pull amplifier. How it can be
minimized?

• Explain the Q-point placement in Class-AB power amplifier with neat sketches of
load line.

• What are the merits and demerits of class-AB power amplifier? 142

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi.
Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B) status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
142
Questions
• Explain the working of Class-C power amplifier with the help of a neat circuit
diagram. What is its drawback? Where can you use Class-C amplifiers?

• In Class-C circuit the output current flows for a period less than 180o of the
input
signal. How the signal is reconstructed at the output?

• What are the disadvantages in Series fed, Directly coupled Class-A power
amplifier?

• What transformer turns ratio is required to match a 16-Ω speaker load so that
the effective load resistance seen at the primary is 10 kΩ?
143

144

An Autonomous Institution ,Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi. Approved By AICTE, New Delhi.
Recognized by UGC with 2(f) & 12(B) status. Accredited by NBA and NAAC.
144

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