Structure and functions of Animal Cell

The cell is the lowest level of structure capable of

performing all the activities of life. The first cells were
observed and named by Robert Hooke in 1665 from slice
of cork.
The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all
forms of life. Every cell consists of cytoplasm enclosed
within a membrane; many cells contain organelles, each
with a specific function. The term comes from the Latin
word cellula meaning 'small room'.
There are many different types, sizes, and shapes of cells in
the body. For descriptive purposes, the concept of a
"generalized cell" is introduced. It includes features from
all cell types. A cell consists of three parts: the
cell membrane, the nucleus, and, between the two, the
cytoplasm. Within the cytoplasm lie intricate
arrangements of fine fibers and hundreds or even
thousands of miniscule but distinct structures called
organelles.
Cell membrane:
Every cell in the body is enclosed by a cell (Plasma)
membrane. The cell membrane separates the material
outside the cell, extracellular, from the material inside the
cell, intracellular. It maintains the integrity of a cell and
controls passage of materials into and out of the cell. All
materials within a cell must have access to the cell
membrane (the cell's boundary) for the needed exchange.
The cell membrane is a double layer of phospholipid
molecules.
Proteins in the cell membrane provide structural support,
form channels for passage of materials, act as receptor
sites, function as carrier molecules, and provide
identification markers.
The Plasma Membrane - function of plasma membrane =
selective barrier that allows passage of oxygen, nutrients,
and wastes for the whole volume of the cell.
Nucleus and Nucleolus:
The nucleus, formed by a nuclear membrane around a
fluid nucleoplasm, is the control center of the cell. Threads
of chromatin in the nucleus contain deoxyribonucleic acid (
DNA), the genetic material of the cell.
The nucleus is enclosed by a nuclear envelope which is a
double membrane of 20 -40 nm apart.
Where the double membranes are fused, a nuclear pore
complex allows large macromolecules and particles to pass
through.
The nuclear side of
the envelope is
lined by the
nuclear lamina, a
network of
intermediate
filaments that
maintain the shape
of the nucleus.
Nucleolus = a region (in the nucleus) of densely stained
fibers and granules adjoining chromatin. In the nucleolus,
rRNA is synthesized and assembled with proteins from
the cytoplasm to form ribosomal subunits.
The subunits pass from the nuclear pores to the
cytoplasm where they combine to form ribosomes.
Cytoplasm:
The cytoplasm is the gel-like fluid inside the cell. It is the
medium for chemical reaction. It provides a platform upon
which other organelles can operate within the cell. All of
the functions for cell expansion, growth and replication are
carried out in the cytoplasm of a cell. Within the cytoplasm,
materials move by diffusion, a physical process that can
work only for short distances.
Cytoplasmic organelles:
Cytoplasmic organelles are "little organs" that are
suspended in the cytoplasm of the cell. Each type of
organelle has a definite structure and a specific role in the
function of the cell. Examples of cytoplasmic organelles are
mitochondrion, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, golgi
apparatus, and lysosomes.
Ribosomes -particles consisted of proteins and ribosomal
RNA (rRNA) -function = protein synthesis -prokaryotes =
70S; eukaryotes = 80S.
•free ribosomes in cytosol synthesize proteins that function
within cytosol.
•bound ribosomes are attached to the outside of the
endoplasmic reticulum or nuclear envelope: membrane
protein, organelle proteins or secretory protein.
•Bound and free ribosomes are structurally identical and
can alternate between the two roles.
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) -ER consists of a network of
membranous tubules and sacs called cisternae. (cisterna = a
reservoir for a liquid) -the network are interconnected - The
ER membrane is continuous with the nuclear envelope and
the cisternal space of the ER is continuous with the space
between the two membranes of the nuclear envelope.
smooth and rough ER (with & without ribosomes) -Smooth
ER: synthesis of lipid (oils, phospholipids, and steroids),
glycogen metabolism in the liver cells, detoxification of
drugs and poisons and store calcium for muscle contraction
Rough ER: ribosomes are attached
to the outside -is abundant in
cells that secrete protein.
•synthesis secretory proteins, cell
membrane protein and organelle
protein (proteins are targeted to
determined location according to
the sorting signals.
•Sorting signals are encoded in amino acid sequences or in the
attached oligosaccharides).
•synthesis of phospholipids and ER associated protein.
•proteins are synthesized from the bound ribosomes.
•threaded into the cisternal space through a pore formed by a
protein in the ER membrane.
•protein folds into its native conformation.
•an oligosaccharide is attached to the protein = glycosylation.
•those proteins are wrapped in the transport vesicles that bud
from the ER
The Golgi apparatus: -major sites for carbohydrate symthesis
-sorting and dispatching station for the products of the ER -
consists of flatten membranous sacs, cisternae -unlike ER
cisternae, the Golgi cisternae are not physically connected.
•A Golgi stacks has polarity: cis face (the receiving side)
and trans face (the shipping side).
•transport vesicle from ER fuses to the cis face to transfer
the material to the Golgi.
•proteins and lipids are altered; glycosylation and
phosphorylation (tagging the sorting signal).
•oligosaccharides portion of the glycoproteins are
modified: Golgi removes some sugar monomers and
substitutes others.
•some polysaccharides are synthesized in the Golgi e.g
pectin and cellulose of the plant cell wall and most of the
glycosaminoglycans of animal extracellular matrix.
•Golgi products (that will be secreted) depart from the
trans face of the Golgi by transport vesicle for the correct
docking.
Lysosomes: principal sites of intracellular digestion -
contain hydrolytic enzymes (required acidic pH) to digest
proteins, polysaccharides, fats and nucleic acids (if those
hydrolases leak out of the lysosmes, they are not likely to
do damage unless the cells become acidic).
lysosomal enzymes and membranes are made by rough
ER and transferred to the Golgi for processing -lysosomal
membranes are highly glycosylated to protect them from
lysosomal proteases.
Food particles engulfed as a food vacuole (phagocytosis)
or an endosome (product of receptor-mediated
endocytosis) is fused with the lysosome.
The digestion products are passed to cytosol and become
nutrient for the cell.
autophagy = process which cells recycle its own organic
material.
the organelles are fused with a lysosome.
after digestion, the organic monomers are returned to
the cytosol for reuse.
Mitochondria: energy transformers of cells.
mitochondria = cellular respiration.
mitochondria contain small quantity of DNA that direct the
synthesis of polypeptides produced by the internal ribosomes.
mitochondria grow and reproduce as semiautonomous
organelles.
-most of the mitochondrial proteins are synthesized by the
free ribosomes in the cytosol.
a few of the proteins are synthesized from their own
ribosomes.
Mitochondria
1-10 µm long.
some cells contain a single large mitochondrion but most
cells contain several mitochondria.
enclosed by two membrane: outer and inner membrane
with different permeability -cristae = fold innermembrane
to increase the surface area
matrix and intermembrane space
matrix contains:
-ds circular DNA
-prokaryote like ribosome (70S)
-enzymes in TCA cycle
-enzymes for β-oxidation of fatty acid Glucose and fatty acids
are catabolized in the matrix of mitochondria.
innermembrane of mitochondria contains:
-electron transport chain
-ATP synthase
The energy from catabolism in the matrix is converted into ATP.
Peroxisomes:
-single membrane
-contain enzymes that transfer hydrogen from various
substrate to oxygen and produce H2O2 as intermediate
product
-but peroxisomes contain another enzyme that convert
H2O2 to H2O
-some peroxisomes break down fatty acids to smaller
molecules that are transported to mitochondria for fuel
The Cytoskeleton:
-a network of fibers extending throughout the cytoplasm.
function: provide mechanical strength to the cell establish
cell shape locomotion (several types of cell motility)
intracellular transport of organelles.
-3 main types of fiber:
1. microtubules: determine the positions of membrane
enclosed organelles and intracellular transport.
2. microfilament: determine the shape of the cell and
necessary for the whole cell locomotion.
3. intermediate filament: provide mechanical strength and
resistance to shear stress.
Cell motility requires interaction of cytoskeleton with
proteins called motor molecules in ATP dependent
manner.
Sliding of neighboring microtubules moves cilia and
flagella.
In muscle contraction, motor molecules slide
microfimaments.