Public Key Cryptography

and the
RSA Algorithm
 Cryptography
encryption
message encryption key
algorithm

Transmission
Channel

decryption
decryption key message
algorithm
 Private-Key Cryptography
• traditional private/secret/single key cryptography
uses one key
• Key is shared by both sender and receiver
• if the key is disclosed communications are
compromised
• also known as symmetric, both parties are equal
• hence does not protect sender from receiver coping a
message & claiming is sent by sender
 Public-Key Cryptography
• Also known as asymmetric-key
cryptography
• uses two keys – a public key and a private key
• asymmetric since parties are not equal
• uses clever application of number theory concepts
to function
• complements rather than replaces private key
cryptography
 Public-Key Cryptography
• public-key/two-key/asymmetric cryptography
involves the use of two keys:
• a public-key, which may be known by anybody, and
can be used to encrypt messages, and verify
signatures
• a private-key, known only to the recipient, used to
decrypt messages, and sign (create) signatures
• is asymmetric because
• those who encrypt messages or verify signatures
cannot decrypt messages or create signatures
Public-Key Cryptography
Why Public-Key Cryptography?
• developed to address two key issues:
• key distribution – how to have secure
communications in general without having to
trust a KDC with your key
• digital signatures – how to verify a message
comes intact from the claimed sender
• public invention due to Whitfield Diffie &
Martin Hellman at Stanford U. in 1976
• known earlier in classified community
 Public-Key Characteristics
• Public-Key algorithms rely on two keys
with the characteristics that it is:
• computationally infeasible to find decryption
key knowing only algorithm & encryption key
• computationally easy to en/decrypt messages
when the relevant (en/decrypt) key is known
• either of the two related keys can be used for
encryption, with the other used for decryption
(in some schemes)
Public-Key Cryptosystems
 Public-Key Applications
• can classify uses into 3 categories:
• encryption/decryption (provide secrecy)
• digital signatures (provide authentication)
• key exchange (of session keys)
• some algorithms are suitable for all uses,
others are specific to one
 RSA
• by Rivest, Shamir & Adleman of MIT in
1977
• best known & widely used public-key
scheme
• based on exponentiation in a finite (Galois)
field over integers modulo a prime
 RSA Key Setup
• each user generates a public/private key pair by:
• selecting two large primes at random - p, q
• computing their system modulus N=p.q
• note ø(N)=(p-1)(q-1)
• selecting at random the encryption key e
• where 1<e<ø(N), gcd(e,ø(N))=1
• solve following equation to find decryption key d
• e.d=1 mod ø(N) and 0≤d≤N
• publish their public encryption key: KU={e,N}
• keep secret private decryption key: KR={d,p,q}
 System Architecture
Key Generation
Select p, q p, q both prime, pq
Calculate n = pq
Calculate (n) = (p-1)(q-1)
Select integer e gcd((n),e) = 1; 1<e< (n)
Calculate d
Public key KU = {e, n}
Private key KR = {d, n}

Encryption
Plaintext: M<n
Ciphertext: C = Me (mod n)

Decryption
Ciphertext: C
Plaintext: M = Cd (mod n)
 RSA Use
• to encrypt a message M the sender:
• obtains public key of recipient KU={e,N}
• computes: C=Me mod N, where 0≤M<N
• to decrypt the ciphertext C the owner:
• uses their private key KR={d,p,q}
• computes: M=Cd mod N
• note that the message M must be smaller
than the modulus N (block if needed)
 Why RSA Works
• because of Euler's Theorem:
• aø(n)mod N = 1
• where gcd(a,N)=1
• in RSA have:
• N=p.q
• ø(N)=(p-1)(q-1)
• carefully chosen e & d to be inverses mod ø(N)
• hence e.d=1+k.ø(N) for some k
• hence :
Cd = (Me)d = M1+k.ø(N) = M1.(Mø(N))q = M1.(1)q
= M1 = M mod N
 RSA Example
1. Select primes: p=17 & q=11
2. Compute n = pq =17×11=187
3. Compute ø(n)=(p–1)(q-1)=16×10=160
4. Select e : gcd(e,160)=1; choose e=7
5. Determine d: de=1 mod 160 and d < 160
Value is d=23 since 23×7=161= 10×160+1
6. Publish public key KU={7,187}
7. Keep secret private key KR={23,17,11}
 RSA Example cont
• sample RSA encryption/decryption is:
• given message M = 88 (nb. 88<187)
• encryption:
C = 887 mod 187 = 11
• decryption:
M = 1123 mod 187 = 88
 RSA Key Generation
• users of RSA must:
• determine two primes at random - p, q
• select either e or d and compute the other
• primes p,q must not be easily derived from
modulus N=p.q
• means must be sufficiently large
• typically guess and use probabilistic test
• exponents e, d are inverses, so use Inverse
algorithm to compute the other