Amna Bajwa

Agenda
• What is a research hypothesis?
• In which types of research, a research
hypothesis is appropriate?
• What are dos and don’ts of a research
hypothesis?
• What are the characteristics of a good
research hypothesis?
• What are different types of a research
hypothesis?
• What is Type 1 Error and Type 2 Error?
• A statement
Research Hypothesis
of prediction that specifies the
expected relationship between variables
(Creswell , 2014).
• A tentative statement about the relationship
between two or more variables, which can
be tested and potentially proven or
disproven (Robson, 2002).
• A specific, testable proposition about the
relationship between two or more variables
(Sekaran & Bougie , 2016).
• A statement that predicts a relationship
between variables" based on existing
In which types of research, a
• A research
Research Hypothesis
hypothesis is
is primarily appropriate
for quantitative research, where variables are
appropriate?
measured, and relationships are tested using
empirical data (Creswell, 2014).
Types of Research Where a Hypothesis is
Appropriate
• Experimental Research – Used to establish
cause-and-effect relationships by
manipulating an independent variable and
measuring its effect on a dependent variable
(Shadish, Cook, & Campbell, 2002).
Students who receive AI-assisted language
There is a positive correlation between
social media usage and anxiety levels
among university students.
• Descriptive Research – Though primarily
focused on observation, descriptive
research can include hypotheses when
predicting trends (Babbie, 2020).
Urban residents are more likely to
participate in environmental conservation
programs than rural residents.
• Quasi-Experimental Research – Similar to
experimental research but without random
assignment, making it suitable for studying
 Dos of a Research Hypothesis

Make It Clear and Precise Increased screen time negatively affects sleep quality among
teenagers.
Technology affects sleep.

Ensure It Is Testable Students who study in a quiet environment score higher on vocabulary
tests than those who study in a noisy environment.
Studying in silence is better.

Base It on Existing Regular exercise reduces the risk of depression among adults by
Research/Theory increasing endorphin levels.
Running makes people happy.

Use Simple and Concise Students with more frequent class participation score higher on exams.
Language
A statistically significant correlation exists between the frequency of
academic verbal engagement and evaluative performance metrics.
 Don’ts of a Research Hypothesis

Don’t Make It a Does social media affect mental health?

Question
Increased social media use is associated with higher levels of anxiety
among teenagers.
Don’t Use Subjective or Chocolate is the best mood booster.
Opinion-Based
Language Consuming dark chocolate increases serotonin levels in adults.

Don’t Be Too Broad or Exercise is good for health

General
Regular aerobic exercise reduces blood pressure in hypertensive patients.

Don’t Include Un- Creativity increases with artistic exposure.

measurable Variables
Exposure to visual arts training increases scores on the Torrance Test of
Creative Thinking (TTCT).
Characteristics of a good
Research Hypothesis?
• Testability and Falsifiability – A hypothesis must be
formulated in a way that allows it to be empirically
tested and potentially refuted (Popper, 1959).
Exposure to violent video games increases aggressive
behavior in teenagers.
• Clarity and Specificity – It should be clear, precise, and
unambiguous, ensuring that the variables and their
relationships are well-defined (Kerlinger & Lee, 2000).
Students who sleep at least eight hours before an exam
perform better than those who sleep less than five
hours.
• Empirical Support – A strong hypothesis is grounded in
existing literature and theoretical frameworks (Creswell,
2014).
Second-language learners acquire vocabulary more
efficiently through contextual learning than through rote
memorization.
• Predictive Power – It should offer a logical prediction
about the relationship between variables (Trochim,
2006).
Children who receive bilingual education from an early
age have better problem-solving skills than monolingual
children.
• Relevance – The hypothesis should address a significant
research problem and contribute to the field (Neuman,
2014).
Employees with higher job satisfaction are less likely to
What are different types of
a Research Hypothesis?
Null Hypothesis
It makes a prediction that in the general population, no
relationship or no significant difference exists between
groups on a variable.
The amount of text highlighted in the textbook has no
effect on exam scores.

Alternative Hypothesis

It suggests a relationship or difference between

variables.

Students who study in the morning score higher on

tests than those who study at night.
Directional Hypothesis

It predicts the specific direction of a relationship

or effect.

Increased screen time leads to lower academic

performance.

Non-Directional Hypothesis

It indicates a relationship exists but does not specify

the direction.

There is a difference in academic performance based

on screen time.
Causal Hypothesis

It suggests that one variable directly affects another.

Regular physical exercise reduces stress levels in

college students.

Associative Hypothesis.

It indicates a relationship between variables without

implying causation.

Students with higher attendance tend to achieve better

grades.
The concepts of Type I and Type II errors were
Type 1and
introduced and Typeby
explained 2 Neyman
Errorsand
Pearson in their 1933 paper on hypothesis
testing- Neyman-Pearson Lemma- formalized
the framework for statistical decision-making.
Type I and Type II Errors in Hypothesis
Testing
• Type I Error (False Positive)- It occurs when
the null hypothesis (H₀) is rejected even
though it is actually true. This means the
test falsely detects an effect or relationship
that does not exist.
• A Type II error (False Negative)- It occurs
• 1. Type I Error Examples
(False Positive) – Seeing an Effect
That Doesn't Exist
The principal believes the new teaching method
works and implements it, but in reality, it does not
improve student performance.
A research study wrongly finds that using tablets in
the classroom improves learning, but the
improvement is actually due to better teachers, not
the tablets. The school buys expensive tablets, but
they don’t actually help students.
How to reduce?
Use larger sample sizes so results are more
reliable.
• Type II Error (False Negative) – Missing a Real
Effect What Examples
The principal believes the new teaching method
does NOT work and rejects it, but in reality, it
actually improves student performance.
A study tests whether interactive group discussions
improve students' reading skills, but because the
sample size is too small, no significant
improvement is found. The school does not adopt
this method, even though it actually helps
students.
How to reduce?
Increase the sample size (more students in the
study).
 Language in a Research
Hypothesis

• Precise and clear language.

• Use of declarative statement.
• Operational definitions- clear definitions of variables to
avoid ambiguity.
• Free from bias or personal opinions (objective and
neutral).
• Use of present tense.
• Directional and non- directional language (words-
increase, decrease, improve, influence, relate and affect).
Testable and measurable terms (structured)-
 Language in a Research
Hypothesis

• Directional and non- directional language

(words- increase, decrease, improve,
influence, relate and affect).
• Testable and measurable terms (structured)-
instead of writing “AI makes learning better”,
write- “Students using AI-based tutoring
software for six weeks will perform better on
math assessments than those using
traditional tutoring methods”.
• A researchConclusion
hypothesis is a clear, testable
statement that defines the expected
relationship between variables.
• It guides the research process by ensuring
focus, precision, and empirical validation.
• Different types, such as directional, non-
directional, null, and alternative hypotheses,
shape the study’s approach.
• Avoiding errors like Type I and Type II is crucial
for accuracy in hypothesis testing.
• A well-formulated hypothesis strengthens
research reliability and contributes to
knowledge advancement.
• Babbie, E. R.
References
(2020). The practice of social
research (15th ed.). Cengage Learning.
• Creswell, J. W. (2014). Research design:
Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods
approaches (4th ed.). SAGE Publications.
• Kerlinger, F. N., & Lee, H. B. (2000). Foundations of
behavioral research (4th ed.). Cengage Learning.
• Neuman, W. L. (2014). Social research methods:
Qualitative and quantitative approaches (7th ed.).
Pearson.
• Neyman, J., & Pearson, E. S. (1933). On the
problem of the most efficient tests of statistical
hypotheses. Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society of London. Series A, Containing
• Popper, K. R. (1959). The logic of scientific
discovery. Hutchinson.
• Robson, C. (2002). Real world research: A
resource for social scientists and practitioner-
researchers (2nd ed.). Blackwell Publishing.
• Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2016). Research
methods for business: A skill-building approach
(7th ed.). Wiley.
• Shadish, W. R., Cook, T. D., & Campbell, D. T.
(2002). Experimental and quasi-experimental
designs for generalized causal inference.
Houghton Mifflin.
• Trochim, W. M. K. (2006). The research methods
knowledge base (2nd ed.). Atomic Dog
Thank You