Unit 7A:

Cognition: Memory
What is Memory?

Human memory is an
information processing
system that works
constructively to encode,
store, and retrieve
information

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

 Metaphors for Memory
 Cognitive psychologists see
human memory more as an
interpretive system, such as an
artist, rather than a system that
takes an accurate recording,
such as a video recorder
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
 Human Memory is
Good at:
 Information on which attention is focused
 Information in which we are interested
 Information that arouses us emotionally
 Information that fits with our previous
experiences
 Information that we rehearse
Information Processing Model

 Encoding - getting information

into the memory system
 Storage - the retaining of
encoded information over time
 Retrieval - getting encoded
information out of memory
storage
 Memory’s Three Basic Tasks

Encoding Storage Retrieval

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 Memory’s Three Basic Functions

Encoding Storage Retrieval

Involves Elaboration –
modification of Deliberate encoding in
which you connect a
information to fit
new concept with
the preferred existing information
format of the
memory system
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 Memory’s Three Basic Functions

Encoding Storage Retrieval

Involves
retention of
encoded
material over
time
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 Memory’s Three Basic Functions

Encoding Storage Retrieval

Involves the
location and
recovery of
information
from memory

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

 Encoding
 The processing of information into the
memory system.

Getting a girls name at

Typing info into a
a party
computer
 Storage
 The retention of encoded
material over time.

Pressing Ctrl S Trying to remember her

and saving the name when you leave
info. the party.
 Retrieval
 The process of getting the information
out of memory storage.

Seeing her the next

Finding your day and calling her
document and the wrong name
opening it up. (retrieval failure).
 The Three Stages of Memory

Sensory Working Long-term

Memory Memory Memory

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 The Three Stages of Memory

Sensory Working Long-term

Memory Memory Memory
Preserves brief
sensory
impressions of
stimuli

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 The Three Stages of Memory
Sensory Working Long-term
Memory Memory Memory

Preserves recently
perceived events or
experiences for less
than a minute without
rehearsal, also called
short-term memory or
STM
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 The Three Stages of Memory

Sensory Working Long-term

Memory Memory Memory
Stores material
organized
according to
meaning, also
called LTM

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 The First Stage: Sensory Memory
On the next slide, you will
see a series of letters for one
second
Try to remember as many
letters as you can

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

DJB
X HG
C LY
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
The First Stage: Sensory Memory

 How many can you recall?

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

DJB
X HG
C LY
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
 Sensory Memory
 The brief, initial coding of sensory information in the
memory system
 Iconic store – visual
information, ½ second
 Echoic store – sound
information, 2-3 seconds
 Information held just long enough to make a
decision on its importance
 Sensory Memory
 The actual capacity of sensory memory can be
twelve or more items
 All but three or four items disappear before they
can enter consciousness
 There is a separate sensory register for each
sense
 Psychologists believe that, in this stage,
memory images take the form of nerve impulses
Storage: Retaining Information
Working/Short-Term Memory

 Magic number Seven

 Plus or minus 2
 The list of magic sevens
 Seven wonders of world
 Seven seas
 Seven deadly sins
 Seven primary colors
 Seven musical scale notes
 Seven days of the week
 Encoding and Storage
in Working Memory
 Chunking –
Organizing pieces of information into a smaller
number of meaningful units
 Maintenance rehearsal –
Process in which information is repeated or
reviewed to keep it from fading while in working
memory
 Encoding and Storage
in Working Memory
 Elaborative rehearsal –
Process in which information is
actively reviewed and related to
information already in LTM
 Making connections to previous memories
will improve retrieval of new memory
 Encoding: Getting Information In
How We Encode
 Ebbinghaus curve
 Semantic Encoding
 The encoding of
meaning
 Encoding information
that is meaningful
enhances recall
Semantic Encoding
 Acoustic Encoding
 Encoding information
based on the sounds of the
information
Acoustic Encoding
(From Craik & Tulving, 1975)
 Visual Encoding
 Encoding information
based on the images of the
information
Visual Encoding
(From Craik & Tulving, 1975)
 Encoding Errors
Answer the following questions:
 Which letters do not appear on the old standard telephone
dial?
 What is the color of the top stripe of the American flag? The
bottom stripe?
 How many sides do most wooden pencils have?
 In what hand does the Statue of Liberty hold her torch?
 The White House is pictured on the back of a $20 bill. What is
on the back of a $10 bill? A $5 bill? A $1 bill?
 What four words besides “In God We Trust” appear on most
U.S. coins?
 Answers
 Which letters do not appear on the old standard
telephone dial? A: Q and Z
 What is the color of the top stripe of the American
flag? The bottom stripe? A: Red for both
 How many sides do most wooden pencils have? A:
Six
 In what hand does the Statue of Liberty hold her
torch? A: Right
 The White House is pictured on the back of a $20 bill.
What is on the back of a $10 bill? (Treasury
Building) A $5 bill? (Lincoln Memorial) A $1 bill?
(The word “One”)
 The Third Stage:
Long-Term Memory
 Procedural memory (IMPLICIT)–
Division of LTM that stores memories for how things are
done

 Declarative memory (EXPLICIT) –

Division of LTM that stores explicit information
(also known as fact memory)
TYPES OF MEMORIES
 The Third Stage:
Long-Term Memory
 Episodic memory –
Subdivision of declarative memory
that stores memories for personal
events, or “episodes”
Semantic memory –
Subdivision of declarative memory
that stores general knowledge,
including meanings of words and
concepts Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
 Storage: Retaining Information
Storing Memories in the Brain
Stress Hormones and Memory
 Emotions and memories
 Flashbulb memory
 a clear memory of an emotionally
significant moment or event.
 Storage: Retaining Information
Long-Term Memory
 Unlimited nature of long-term memory
 MEMORIZE THE FOLLOWING
SEQUENCE OF NUMBERS

576128432
2
 What were the
numbers???
576128432
2
 Serial Position Effect
 The tendency to recall the first and
last items in a list
 Primacy effect – the ability to
recall information near the
beginning of a list
 Recency effect – the ability to
recall information near the end of a
list
Primacy/Recency Effect
or
Serial Position Effect
(From Craik & Watkins, 1973)
Encoding: Getting Information In
How We Encode

 Spacing effect
 Massed practice
 Distributed practice
 Testing effect
 Take out a piece of paper
Name the Seven Dwarves
 Retrieval

 The process of getting

information out of memory
storage
 Two forms of retrieval
 Recall
 Recognition
 Recall

 A measure of memory in which

the person must retrieve
information learned earlier
 Example: Essay, fill-in-the-blank,
and short answer test questions
test recall
 Recognition
 A measure of memory in
which a person must identify
items learned earlier
 Example: Multiple choice and
matching test questions test
recognition
 Turn your paper over.
Now pick out the seven dwarves.

Grouchy Gabby Fearful

Sleepy Smiley Jumpy
Hopeful Shy Droopy
Dopey Sniffy Wishful Puffy
Dumpy Sneezy Pop
Grumpy Bashful Cheerful
Teach Snorty Nifty Happy
Doc Wheezy Stubby
 Seven Dwarves

Sleepy, Dopey, Grumpy, Sneezy, Happy, Doc and Bashful

 Context Effect
 The enhanced ability to
retrieve information when you
are in an environment similar
to the one in which you
encoded the information
Retrieval: Getting Information Out
Context Effects
Context
 State Dependent Memory

 The enhanced ability to

retrieve information when the
person is in the same physical
and emotional state they were
in when they encoded the
information