DR.A.D.

Shinde Institute
of Technology
DEPT: Computer Engineering

Operating System 1
I/O Structure
 After I/O starts, control returns to user
program only upon I/O completion
◦ Wait instruction idles the CPU until the next
interrupt
◦ Wait loop (contention for memory access)
◦ At most one I/O request is outstanding at a time,
no simultaneous I/O processing
 After I/O starts, control returns to user
program without waiting for I/O completion
◦ System call – request to the OS to allow user to
wait for I/O completion
◦ Device-status table contains entry for each I/O
device indicating its type, address, and state
◦ OS indexes into I/O device table to determine
device status and to modify table entry to include
interrupt

Operating System 2
 Storage Definitions and Notation Review

The basic unit of computer storage is the bit. A bit can contain one of two
values, 0 and 1. All other storage in a computer is based on collections of bits.
Given enough bits, it is amazing how many things a computer can represent:
numbers, letters, images, movies, sounds, documents, and programs, to name a
few. A byte is 8 bits, and on most computers it is the smallest convenient chunk
of storage. For example, most computers don’t have an instruction to move a bit
but do have one to move a byte. A less common term is word, which is a given
computer architecture’s native unit of data. A word is made up of one or more
bytes. For example, a computer that has 64-bit registers and 64-bit memory
addressing typically has 64-bit (8-byte) words. A computer executes many
operations in its native word size rather than a byte at a time.

Computer storage, along with most computer throughput, is generally measured

and manipulated in bytes and collections of bytes.
A kilobyte, or KB, is 1,024 bytes
a megabyte, or MB, is 1,0242 bytes
a gigabyte, or GB, is 1,0243 bytes
a terabyte, or TB, is 1,0244 bytes
a petabyte, or PB, is 1,0245 bytes

Computer manufacturers often round off these numbers and say that a
megabyte is 1 million bytes and a gigabyte is 1 billion bytes. Networking
measurements are an exception to this general rule; they are given in bits
(because networks move data a bit at a time).

Operating System 3
Storage Structure
 Main memory – only large storage media that
the CPU can access directly
◦ Random access
◦ Typically volatile
 Secondary storage – extension of main memory
that provides large nonvolatile storage
capacity
 Hard disks – rigid metal or glass platters
covered with magnetic recording material
◦ Disk surface is logically divided into tracks, which are subdivided into sectors
◦ The disk controller determines the logical interaction between the device and
the computer
 Solid-state disks – faster than hard disks,
nonvolatile
◦ Various technologies
◦ Becoming more popular

Operating System 4
 Storage Hierarchy

 Storage systems organized in hierarchy

◦ Speed
◦ Cost
◦ Volatility
 Caching – copying information into
faster storage system; main memory
can be viewed as a cache for secondary
storage
 Device Driver for each device
controller to manage I/O
◦ Provides uniform interface between
controller and kernel

Operating System 5
Storage-Device Hierarchy

Operating System 6
Caching

 Important principle, performed at many

levels in a computer (in hardware,
operating system, software)
 Information in use copied from slower to
faster storage temporarily
 Faster storage (cache) checked first to
determine if information is there
◦ If it is, information used directly from the
cache (fast)
◦ If not, data copied to cache and used there
 Cache smaller than storage being cached
◦ Cache management important design
problem
◦ Cache size and replacement policy

Operating System 7
Clustered Systems

Operating System 8
Operating System Structure
 Multiprogramming (Batch system) needed for
efficiency
◦ Single user cannot keep CPU and I/O devices busy at all times
◦ Multiprogramming organizes jobs (code and data) so CPU always has one
to execute
◦ A subset of total jobs in system is kept in memory
◦ One job selected and run via job scheduling
◦ When it has to wait (for I/O for example), OS switches to another job

 Timesharing (multitasking) is logical extension in

which CPU switches jobs so frequently that users can interact with each job
while it is running, creating interactive computing
◦ Response time should be < 1 second
◦ Each user has at least one program executing in memory process
CPU scheduling
◦ If several jobs ready to run at the same time 
◦ If processes don’t fit in memory, swapping moves them in and out to
run
◦ Virtual memory allows execution of processes not completely in
memory

Operating System 9
Memory Layout for Multiprogrammed System

Operating System 10
 Operating-System Operations
 Interrupt driven (hardware and
software)
◦ Hardware interrupt by one of the devices
◦ Software interrupt (exception or trap):
 Software error (e.g., division by zero)
 Request for operating system service
 Other process problems include infinite
loop, processes modifying each other or
the operating system

Operating System 11
 Operating-System Operations (cont.)

 Dual-mode operation allows OS to

protect itself and other system
components
◦ User mode and kernel mode
◦ Mode bit provided by hardware
 Provides ability to distinguish when system is
running user code or kernel code
 Some instructions designated as privileged,
only executable in kernel mode
 System call changes mode to kernel, return
from call resets it to user
 Increasingly CPUs support multi-mode
operations
◦ i.e. virtual machine manager (VMM)
mode for guest VMs
Operating System 12
Transition from User to Kernel Mode
 Timer to prevent infinite loop / process hogging
resources
◦ Timer is set to interrupt the computer after some time
period
◦ Keep a counter that is decremented by the physical clock.
◦ Operating system set the counter (privileged instruction)
◦ When counter zero generate an interrupt
◦ Set up before scheduling process to regain control or
terminate program that exceeds allotted time

Operating System 13
 Process Management
 A process is a program in execution. It
is a unit of work within the system.
Program is a passive entity, process
is an active entity.
 Process needs resources to
accomplish its task
◦ CPU, memory, I/O, files
◦ Initialization data
 Process termination requires reclaim
of any reusable resources
 Single-threaded process has one
program counter specifying location
of next instruction to execute
◦ Process executes instructions sequentially,
Operating System 14
 Process Management
Activities
The operating system is responsible for the following activities in
connection with process management:

 Creating and deleting both user and

system processes
 Suspending and resuming processes
 Providing mechanisms for process

synchronization
 Providing mechanisms for process

communication
 Providing mechanisms for deadlock

handling

Operating System 15
 Memory Management
 To execute a program all (or part) of
the instructions must be in memory
 All (or part) of the data that is

needed by the program must be in

memory.
 Memory management determines

what is in memory and when

◦ Optimizing CPU utilization and computer
response to users
 Memory management activities
◦ Keeping track of which parts of memory
are currently being used and by whom
◦ Deciding which processes (or parts
Operating System 16
Storage Management
 OS provides uniform, logical view of
information storage
◦ Abstracts physical properties to logical
storage unit - file
◦ Each medium is controlled by device (i.e.,
disk drive, tape drive)
 Varying properties include access speed,
capacity, data-transfer rate, access method
(sequential or random)
 File-System management
◦ Files usually organized into directories
◦ Access control on most systems to
determine who can access what
◦ OS activities include
 Creating and deleting files and directories
 Primitives to manipulate files
Operating Systemand directories 17
Mass-Storage
Management
 Usually disks used to store data that
does not fit in main memory or data
that must be kept for a “long” period of
time
 Proper management is of central

importance
 Entire speed of computer operation

hinges on disk subsystem and its

algorithms
 OS activities

◦ Free-space management
◦ Storage allocation
◦ Disk scheduling Operating System 18
Performance of Various Levels of Storage

Movement between levels of storage

hierarchy can be explicit or implicit
Operating System 19