UNIT 3 COLLECTING DATA

CHAPTER 15 QUANTITATIVE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
 Understanding data starts with collecting them. There are
various ways of collecting and understanding data.
 Many textbooks and research experts incorporate this
essential part of a research document in Research
Methodology which addresses the question, “How does
the researcher answer the questions stated in Chapter
I?”
 This chapter shows how the problem will be investigated
and discusses the following elements: research design;
respondents, sample, and sampling methods;
instruments used; and statistical treatment.
 ESSENTIAL
ELEMENTS OF THE
RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY
 1. Research Design

It is a very important aspect of research methodology

which describes the research mode (whether it is
qualitative research or quantitative research, or if the
researcher will use a specific research type e.g.,
descriptive, survey, historical, case or experimental).
 2. Respondents of the Study

This describes the target population and the sample frame.

 3. Instrument of the Study

It describes the specific type of research instrument that

will be used such as questionnaire, checklist,
questionnaire-checklist, interview schedule, teacher-made
tests, and the like.
 4. Establishing and validating reliability

The instrument must pass the validity and reliability tests

before it is utilized.
 5. Statistical Treatment

One of the many ways of establishing the objectivity of

research findings is by subjecting the data to different but
appropriate statistical formulas and processes.
 Two major designs in quantitative research, namely the
experimental and non-experimental designs.
Table 15.1. Quantitative Research Designs
Experimental Designs Non-experimental designs
True Experimental Design Action Studies
Pretest-posttest control design Comparative Studies
Posttest only control group Correlational Studies
Solomon four-group Developmental Studies
Quasi-experimental Designs Evaluation Studies
Non equivalent Meta-analysis Studies
Time series Methodological Studies
Pre-experimental Designs Needs assessment Studies
One-shot case study Secondary Analysis Studies
One group pretest-posttest Survey Studies
Source: Nieswiadomy, Rosemarie (2004). Foundations of Nursing Research, 4th
edition. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, p. 127.
EXPERIMENTAL
DESIGNS
 Experimental research is concerned primarily with
cause and effect relationships in studies that involve
manipulation or control of the independent variables
(causes) and measurement of the dependent variables
(effects).

 This design utilizes the principle of research known as

the methods of difference.

 This means that the effect of a single variable applied to

the situation can be assessed and the difference can be
determined (Mill as cited by Sevilla, 2003).
 In experimental research, there are variables that are
not part of the study but are believed to influence the
outcomes. These are called intervening or extraneous
variables. These variables are part of the study
limitations.

 These extraneous or intervening variables are labeled

threats to internal or external validity (Campbell, &
Stanley, as cited by Nieswiadomy, 2004).
 External Validity versus
Internal Validity
Two types of Validity:
 Internal validity is the degree to which changes in the
dependent variable can be attributed to the
independent variable.

 External validity, however, is the degree to which the

changes in the dependent variable can be attributed to
the extraneous variables.
 What is Validity?
 Validity
is defined as the ability of a certain tool to
measure what it intends to measure.

 Therefore, it is expected that an experimental research

should come up with accurate results.

 The accuracy of the results of an experimental research

is hindered internally and externally.
THREATS TO
INTERNAL
VALIDITY
 1. Selection bias
 This results when the subjects or respondents of the
study are not randomly selected. In this case, the
requirements of objectivity are not met since there is
subjectivity in the selection of subjects.
Example: A researcher wants to experiment on the
best method in teaching home science and
technology. The researcher assigns the students
from the higher section to be in the experimental
group and the students in the lower section to be in
the control group. Obviously, the students in the
higher section will perform better.
 2. Maturation
 This happens when the experiment is conducted
beyond a longer period of time during which most of the
subjects undergo physical, emotional and/or
psychological changes. Maturation is to be avoided if
such changes are not desired.
Example: A researcher implemented an experiment
with Grade 10 students as his subjects. The
researcher, however, became busy and was unable
to follow up the results of the experiment. When he
was able to resume his study two years later, the
subjects had already matured and were in Grade 12.
 3. History
 This refers to a threat to internal validity which happens
during the conduct of the study when an unusual event
affects the result of an experiment.

Example: While a research on the effectiveness of a

method in stopping smoking was ongoing, news
broke out about students who were diagnosed with
lung cancer because of smoking. The subjects who
heard the news were frightened and decided to stop
smoking not because of the intervention but because
of the news.
4. Instrumentation change
 The instrument used in gathering the data must not be
changed or replaced during the conduct of the study.
The instrument must also be applied to all respondents
or subjects.

Example: If a researcher uses an open-ended

questionnaire during the initial period of his data
gathering, then replaces the research instrument
with a close-ended survey form later, this change in
research instrument will have an effect on the data
gathered. As such, the validity and reliability of the
data will be put into question.
 6. Testing
 The testing threat may occur in a study when a pretest
is given to subjects who have knowledge of baseline
data.
 Testing bias is the influence of the pretest or knowledge
of baseline data on the posttest scores.
 Subjects may remember the answers they put on the
pretest and will put the same answers on the posttest.
 The time of the conduct of the test should also be
considered.
Example: the pretest was given during daytime and
the posttest was given during nighttime. Thus, the
time of testing becomes an extraneous variable.
THREATS TO
EXTERNAL
VALIDITY
1. Experimenter effect
 This threat appears when the characteristics of the
researcher affect the behavior of the subjects or
respondents.

Example: A known personality like Ms. Karen Davila

conducting the interview or survey may cause the
subjects to be starstruck and give answers which
they believe will please the interviewer. Such
answers tend to be superficial or may not truly reveal
the ideas, opinions, and thoughts of the subjects.
2. Hawthorne effect
 This occurs when the respondents or subjects respond
artificially to the treatment because they know they are
being observed as part of a research study.

 This phenomenon is traced to a research study done in

Hawthorne Works in Illinois which looked into the
effects of improved lighting and the introduction of
break times and shorter work hours on worker
performance.
2. Hawthorne effect
 The original researchers concluded that these changes
to the workplace resulted in better worker performance.

 Later interpretations by Landsberger, however,

suggested that the novelty of being research subjects
and the increased attention caused the increased
productivity of the workers. This interpretation gave rise
to the term “Hawthorne effect”.
3. Measurement effect
 It is also called the reactive effects of the pretest. It
occurs when subjects have been exposed to the
treatment through taking the pretest.

 This exposure might affect the posttest results. If there

is a prior announcement of the conduct of the study, the
subject might prepare and this will give a superficial
result.
 TYPES OF
EXPERIMENTAL
RESEARCH
DESIGNS
1. True experimental design
A design is considered a true experiment when the
following criteria are present:
a. the researcher manipulates the experimental
variables i.e., the researcher has control over the
independent variables;
b. the treatment and the subjects are randomly
assigned either to the comparison or control group;
c. the subjects are randomly assigned either to the
comparison or experimental group.
d. The control group is a group that does not receive
the treatment.
1. True experimental design
a. Pretest-posttest controlled group design
1. Subjects are randomly assigned to groups.
2. A pretest is given to both groups.
3. The experimental group receives the treatment while the control
group does not.
4. A posttest is given to both groups.
 The procedure is summarized below:
R O1 X O2 (experimental group)
R O1 O2 (control group)
where: R stands for random selection
O1 stands for pretest
O2 stands for posttest
X stands for intervention
1. True experimental design
b. Posttest only controlled group design
1. Subjects are randomly assigned to groups.
2. The experimental group receives the treatment while the control
group does not receive the treatment.
3. A posttest is given to both groups.
 The procedure is summarized below:
R X O2 (experimental group)
R O2 (control group)
where: R stands for random selection
O2 stands for posttest
X stands for intervention
1. True experimental design
c. Solomon four-group design. It is considered as the most reliable and
suitable experimental design. It minimizes threats to both internal and
external validity.
1. Subjects are randomly assigned to one or four groups.
2. Two of the groups (experimental group 1 and control group 1) are
pretested.
3. The other two groups (experimental group 2 and control group 2)
receive the routine treatment or no treatment.
4. A posttest is given to all four groups.
 The procedure is summarized below:
R O1 X O2 (experimental group)
R O1 O2 (control group)
R X O2 (experimental group)
R O2 (control group)
2. Quasi-experimental design
A design in which either there is no control group or the subjects
are not randomly assigned to groups.
a. Non-equivalent controlled group design. This design is similar to the
pretest-posttest control group design except that there is no random
assignment of subjects to the experimental and groups.

The procedure is summarized below:

O1 X O2 (experimental group)
O1 O2 (control group)
2. Quasi-experimental design
b. Time series design. The researcher periodically observes or measures the
subjects.

The procedure is summarized below:

O1 O2 O3 X O4 O5 O6
where:
O1, O2, O3 stands for pretest (multiple observations)
O4, O5, O6 stands for posttest (multiple observations)
3. Pre-experimental design
This experimental design is considered very weak because the
researcher has little control over the research.
a. One-shot case study. A single group is exposed to an experimental
treatment and observed after the treatment.

The procedure is summarized below:

X O
3. Pre-experimental design
b. One-group pretest-posttest design. It provides a comparative description of
a group of subjects before and after the experimental treatment.

The procedure is summarized below:

O1 X O2
TYPES OF NON-
EXPERIMENTAL
RESEARCH
DESIGNS
 1. Survey Studies
 The investigations are conducted through self-report.
 Surveys generally ask respondents to report on their
attitudes, opinions, perceptions, or behaviors.

 Thus, survey studies aim at describing characteristics,

opinions, attitudes, and behaviors as they currently
exist in a population (Wilson, 1990).
 CATEGORIES OF
SURVEY STUDIES
1.1 According to whom the
data is collected from
a. Sample – a representative of the total population
b. Group – can be smaller than a mass
c. Mass – larger than a group
1.2 methods used to collect
the data
a. telephone
b. text messages
c. snail mail
d. e-mail or other social media modalities like Twitter,
Facebook, etc.
e. face-to-face interaction – This is still the best method of
survey due to its high rate of retrieval. It also allows
immediate clarification of issues and offers practical
advantages which are not provided by the other methods.
 1.3 According to time
orientation
a. Retrospective.
 The dependent variable is identified in the present and
an attempt is made to determine the independent
variable that occurred in the past.
 1.3 According to time
orientation
b. Cross-sectional.
 The data are collected at a single point in time.
 The design requires subjects who are at different
points, phases, or stages of an experience.
 The subjects are assumed to represent data collected
from different time periods.
Example: If the researcher wants to determine the
psychological experience of students in different
grade levels, he/she will gather data from a specific
number of subjects from each grade level.
 1.3 According to time
orientation
c. Longitudinal.
 Unlike in the cross-sectional survey, the researcher
collects data from the same people at different times.
In the same study determining the psychological
experience of students in the different grade levels,
the researcher will have enough number of subjects
in the first grade level and they will be observed as
they pass through the different stages.
 Compared to the cross-sectional survey, this study is
conducted over a longer period of time.
1.4 According to purpose or
objectives
a. Descriptive.
 This design is utilized for the purpose of accurately
portraying a population that has been chosen because
of some specific characteristics.
 It is also used to determine the extent or direction of
attitudes and behaviors.
 This design aims to gather more information on certain
characteristics within a particular field of study.
1.4 According to purpose or
objectives
a. Descriptive.
 The purpose is to provide a picture of a situation as it
naturally happens.
 It may be used to develop theories, identify problems
with a current practice, justify current practices, aid in
making professional judgments, or determine what
other practitioners in similar situations are doing.
 No manipulation of variables is involved in a descriptive
design.
1.4 According to purpose or
objectives
b. Comparative.
 This design is used to compare and contrast
representative samples from two or more groups of
subjects in relation to certain designated variables that
occur in normal conditions.
 The results obtained from these analyses are frequently
not generalized in a population.
1.4 According to purpose or
objectives
c. Correlational.
 The design is used to investigate the direction and
magnitude of relationships among variables in a
particular population.
 Likewise, it is designed to study the changes in one
characteristic or phenomenon which correspond to the
changes in another or with one another.
1.4 According to purpose or
objectives
c. Correlational.
 A wide range of variable scores is necessary to
determine the existence of relationships. Thus, the
sample should reflect the full range of scores, if
possible, on the variables being measured.
1.4 According to purpose or
objectives
d. Evaluative.
 This design involves making a judgment of worth or
value.
 It allows the researcher to delineate, obtain, and
provide information that is useful for judging decision
alternatives when conducting a program or service.
 It can be formative (process) or summative (outcome).