Chapter 4

Characteristics
of Ecosystems
 Interactions Within Ecosystems
• Ecology is the study of how organisms interact with each other. The word
ecology combines the Greek words “oikos” meaning “the place where one
lives” and “logos,” meaning “study of.”
• Factors in the environment that affect an ecosystem are:
• Abiotic - non living factors such as sunlight and temperature.
• Biotic factors – caused by the presence and roles of other living things in the
ecosystem.
• All of the members of the same species within an ecosystem are referred to
as a population. All the populations of the different living species in the
ecosystem interacting are called the community of organisms.
• Ecosystems include the community of living things and their physical
environment.
Ecosystems don’t have sharp boundaries. Organisms can move back
and forth from one ecosystem to another. Often there is a transition
area between ecosystems where organisms from both ecosystems
interact with each other.
An ecotone is a transition area where two ecosystems meet. Here
you can find species of both ecosystems. They often contain greater
biodiversity (more species) than either ecosystem. Ecosystems with
greater biodiversity tend to be less fragile. For example, a predator
may have alternative sources of prey and doesn’t need to depend on
a single type of prey. Ecotones help guard against extinction.
An artificial ecosystem is planned or maintained by humans. In a natural ecosystem, the living
community is free to interact with the physical and chemical environment. However, humans
are still a natural part of many ecosystems. Natural ecosystems are not planned or maintained
by humans. As you can see below, the food web for a natural ecosystem would be more
diverse than for the artificial ecosystem found on the left side of the diagram.
 Roles in Ecosystems
• Ecological Niche – an organism’s role in an ecosystem, consisting of its
place in the food web, its habitat, its breeding area, and the time of
day when it is most active. Each organism has its own place in an
ecosystem. The niche that an organism fills includes everything that it
does to survive and reproduce.
• Each species tend to have a slightly different niche or role to play. This
helps to reduce competition between species for the same territory
and resources.
• Generally, the higher the number of different niches in an ecosystem,
the more organisms that will be found.
Roles in Ecosystems

All of these things Owls Hawks

help to reduce the
competition Short wings – hunt prey Longer wings – soar above
within forests grasslands & fields
between owls and
hawks and help Active/hunting at night Hunt during the day
them to each be Eyes see colour poorly, can Eyes detect changes in
successful within detect motion, hear well colour patterns
their own niche. Nest deep in the trees Nest near the tops of tall
trees
 Introduction of Exotic Species

• This is one of the main causes of species depletion and

extinction.
• The ecosystem may lack controls to keep the numbers of
the introduced species in check. If it doesn’t have natural
predators, it has an advantage over the original
populations. Prey organisms may not have a defense
against this new predator.
• Many of the weeds we struggle to control in Canada are
exotic species. Example: purple loosestrife

Photo credit: 4028mdk09

• https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Juni_2012_lila_bl%C3%BChende_Pflanze.JPG
 Biomes

Biome
• a large geographical region with a specific climate, and the plants and animals that are
adapted to that climate.
• They have a particular dominant species,
such as the coniferous trees of the taiga biome.
• Canada has 4 major terrestrial biomes and
contact with 2 major aquatic biomes.
• Climate is the average conditions of
temperature and precipitation and is one
of the main factors that determines
biomes.
 Table 1. Terrestrial Ecosystems in Alberta
Name Abiotic Factors Biotic Community
Taiga • North/Central Alberta forests Black and grizzly bears,
ecosystems • Changeable weather wolverines, weasels, moose,
• Soil contains some water and is acidic deer, grouse, owls, spruce and
• Precipitation 50-250 cm/a pine trees, shrubs, ferns, moss,
lichens
Muskeg • Cold temperatures Black bear, caribou, ptarmigan,
ecosystems • Short growing season rapidly flowering plants, moss,
• Permafrost layer beneath snow lichens
• Low precipitation 25-100 cm/a
Grassland • South/Central Alberta Bison, deer, rabbits, hawks,
ecosystems • Increased sunlight and warmer temperatures yellow-bodied sapsuckers,
than muskeg or boreal forest ecosystems fescue grasses, grasshoppers
• Rich fertile soil
• Precipitation 25-100 cm/a

Deciduous • Central Alberta Black bears, weasels, moose,

forest • Increased sunlight and warmer temperatures deer, woodpeckers, deciduous
ecosystems than muskeg or taiga forest ecosystems trees, shrubs
• Rich fertile soil
• Precipitation 75-250 cm/a
 Taiga Muskeg

• Image credit - peupleloup, CC BY-SA 2.0 <https://creativecommons.org/ Image credit - Mikofox Photography, Yukon, CDN
licenses/by-sa/2.0>, via Wikimedia Commons
Grassland Deciduous Forest

• Image credit – Jim Dollar Canadian Grassland Image Credit – Bernard Spragg, Public Domain
Jasper National Park, Alberta, Canada -- From the archives.
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/2.0/
 Aquatic Ecosystems
• Water covers more than 2/3 of our planet.
• 97% of this water is salt water
• Millions of organisms live in the many different ecosystems on and
under the planet’s surface.
• The oceans control weather patterns to a large extent.
• They provide a constant supply of freshwater through evaporation.
• Most freshwater exists in the forms of snow and ice.
• However, there are still vast amounts of liquid freshwater on the Earth’s
surface, housing millions of organisms in many different ecosystems.
• Aquatic ecosystems are found in ponds, rivers, lakes, and oceans.
• In Alberta, the major aquatic ecosystems are freshwater ecosystems.
A cross section
showing the 3
main zones of
a lake.
 Lake Ecosystems
• Below the surface of a lake, the amount of light available, water temperature, and oxygen levels may
all vary. The organisms found in each area also varies greatly.
• Littoral zone – the area extending from the lakeshore to the point where you can no longer find
plants rooted to the bottom of the lake.
• This is the most productive part of the lake, where algae and plants use sunlight to carry out
photosynthesis.
• Limnetic zone – area of open lake where there is enough light for photosynthesis to occur. Most
common type of organism found here is plankton.
• Plankton – organisms that cannot swim against the current.
• Heterotrophic plankton – invertebrate animals
• Autotrophic plankton – tiny plants and algae
• Profundal zone – the region of a lake beneath the limnetic zone, in which there is insufficient light for
photosynthesis to occur.
• The only source of nutrients here is the dead plants and animals that fall from the limnetic zone.
This detritus is slowly broken down by bacteria and other detritus feeders. The decay of this
organic matter has important consequences for the ecosystem. Bacteria use oxygen to
decompose detritus. This decreases the O2 available in the water. There are no photosynthesizing
plants in this region to replenish the O2. Thus, few fish are found here.
 Factors Affecting Ecosystems
1. Soil – the quality and amount of soil available are crucial factors in determining the size and
health of the plant community and thus, the biodiversity of the ecosystem.
• Soil can be viewed as a series of layers with a distinctive colour and texture. Less organic matter
is present as you go move deeper into the soil.
• Layers:
• Litter – mainly made up of partially decomposed leaves or grasses.
- acts as a blanket limiting temperature variations and reducing water loss by
evaporation.
• Topsoil – small particles of rock mixed with decaying plant and animal matter (humus).
- contains a rich supply of minerals and nutrients that plants require for growth.
- air and water are also present. O2 is necessary for decomposition.
• Subsoil – more rock and less organic matter.
- contains relatively large amounts of minerals (Fe, Al, P)
• Bedrock – the layer beneath the soil, composed of rock
The type of soil affects the biotic components of the ecosystem. It affects the
vegetation that can grow in the area and then the animals that feed on that
vegetation. The pH of the soil can vary depending on the type of rock from which
it was formed and the types of plants that grow in it. The decomposition of
organic matter can cause the accumulation of acids in the soil. The acidity of the
rain, snow, and groundwater also affects the pH of the soil.
 Factors Affecting Ecosystems
2. Available Water – the amount of available water is determined by the amount
and type of precipitation, how long the water stays in the upper layers of soil, and
how much collects beneath the soil.
• Precipitation collects in lakes, ponds, and rivers, but it also seeps into the soil
and porous rock below the soil. Once in the soil or rock, it is called
groundwater.
• As the water flows down through the soil, it eventually reaches a layer that is
saturated with water. The boundary between the saturated layer and the
unsaturated soil above it is called the water table.
• If the water table is high, plants can reach down to it with their roots to obtain
water.
• As water seeps downward, it dissolves minerals and organic matter and carries
them deeper. This is called leaching and it is a problem because plants require
those nutrients and it is now more difficult for the plants to obtain them.
 Factors Affecting Ecosystems
3. Temperature
– can vary throughout the year, which affects biotic and abiotic factors.
- It affects the rate at which water evaporates.
- In Alberta, ecosystems experience extreme winter and summer
conditions. Organisms have adapted to this.
- Conifers have keep their needles all year round to compensate for the
short growing season and to prevent water loss.
- Grassland populations have a lot of their biomass (roots) underground
protected from the cold.
- Animals migrate to warmer climates, hibernate, spend the winter in the
egg stage of their lifecycle or dig holes and spend much time
underground to survive the cold temperatures.
 Factors Affecting Ecosystems
4. Sunlight
- All terrestrial ecosystems are affected by the amount of sunlight they
receive.
- Equatorial regions have fairly constant hours of sunlight all year
round.
- Areas at more southern and northern latitudes have variation in the
number of hours of sunlight at different times of the year.
- Even within an ecosystem, organisms vary in the amount of sunlight
they receive. The growth of tall trees block much sunlight, but can
provide micro-environments of shade for shade loving plants such as
shrubs and mosses.
 Factors Affecting Aquatic Ecosystems
1. Chemical environment includes:
- type of water – freshwater or salt water
- Amount of dissolved oxygen – aquatic organisms must obtain their O2 from
the water. The amount of dissolved oxygen depends on temperature,
pressure, and the amount of salt and other substances dissolved in the
water.
- any other dissolved substances.
Eg. phosphorus, nitrogen, and
organic pollutants.
2 and 3. Temperature and Sunlight
- In aquatic ecosystems, these factors may vary over the seasons of the year, but they are
also affected by the depth of the water.
- Organisms near the surface will obtain far more light and experience warmer
temperatures than organisms in deeper waters.
- Photosynthesizing organisms must be near the surface where sunlight can penetrate.
- There are fascinating organisms that exist around hydrothermal vents on the ocean floor.
Their food chains use bacteria that can produce food through chemosynthesis.
4. Water pressure
- Water is about 800 times more dense than air. This
makes it more difficult to travel through.
- Aquatic organisms are limited by how much they can
move up and down due to increasing water pressure at
greater depths.
- At a depth of 10 m, the pressure is about double what it
is at the surface.
- Pressure increases by 100 kPa for every 10 m of depth.
- Very few organisms are adapted to live under the
extreme pressure on the ocean floor.
Moraine Lake

• Image credit - Isruma, CC BY 3.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons

 Seasonal Variations in Canadian Lakes
• The changing of the seasons provides important changes in the abiotic factors in
freshwater ecosystems found in lakes.
• As water cools, it becomes more dense. Until it reaches 4°C. Then it starts to becomes less
dense. This is why ice floats. It is less dense than liquid water so it floats on top of the
liquid water. This is why the lowest layer of water in a lake often has a temperature of 4°C.
Winter:
• Many lakes are covered with ice and snow. This acts as an insulator and also prevents
atmospheric O2 from dissolving in the water.
• Under the layer of ice on top, the water is arranged in layers according to density.
• If the snow blows off the ice and it is transparent, sunlight can penetrate into the water,
supporting photosynthesis in the water below.
• If the ice is covered in thick snow or is thicker than normal and the sunlight can’t
penetrate, the organisms below will be in trouble. The level of dissolved O 2 may drop and
no longer be able to support some organisms in the water. Fish are very sensitive to
dissolved O2 levels.
Photo – Public domain
Spring:
• The ice melts. O2 can now dissolve into the water.
• Wind stirs the water creating waves so that O2 dissolves quicker.
• The cold surface water warms. As it reaches 4°C, it sinks carrying its dissolved O 2 with it.
This mixing process is called spring turnover.
Summer:
• As the surface water warms above 4°C, it won’t sink. Layers are set up again. The warmest
layer is at the top (great for swimming). This upper level that warms up is the epilimnion.
The lowest level (remains at low temperature) is called the hypolimnion. Between them is
the thermocline. It is a narrow zone where the temperature drops rapidly from warm to
cold.
• There is little movement of O2 from the surface to the depths in the summer. Organisms in
the hypolimnion must rely on O2 reserves brought down during the spring turnover.
• The epilimnion may also face an O2 problem. As the water warms up, it can’t hold as much
dissolved O2. During a hot spell, a shallow lake may lose too much O 2 that some species (ie.
Lake trout) may die.
Fall:
Temperatures drop. The surface water cools. When it reaches 4°C, it sinks. This fall turnover renews dissolved O2 levels at lower levels.
 Limits on Populations and Communities in
Ecosystems
1. Biotic Potential – the maximum number of offspring that a
species could produce if resources were unlimited.
It is regulated by 4 important factors: birth potential,
capacity for survival, breeding frequency, and length of
reproductive life.
 Birth Potential
• The maximum number of offspring per birth.
• Example: Whooping crane females lay 2 eggs per year and usually only one chick
survives.
Capacity for Survival
• The number of offspring that reach reproductive age.
• Example: The female sea turtle lays many eggs, but only a few of her offspring even
reach the sea, and fewer still reach maturity.
Breeding Frequency
• The number of times that a species reproduces each year.
• Example: Elk mate only once per year, during the fall.
Length of Reproductive Life
• The age of sexual maturity and the number of years the individual can reproduce.
• Example: African elephants reach sexual maturity at about 15 years of age, but may
reproduce until they are 90.
2. Limiting Factors – factors in the environment that prevent
populations from attaining their biotic potential. Any resource that is in
short supply is a limiting factor.
3. Carrying Capacity – The maximum number of individuals of a species
that can be supported by an ecosystem.
• It is determined by the availability of resources, such as food and
water.
• Populations may fluctuate because of the interaction of the many
biotic and abiotic limiting factors.
• A population can exceed the carrying capacity of an ecosystem, but
not for long. If a certain species numbers start to increase, their food
supply will decrease. This will keep their numbers in check!
• Ecosystems will soon re-establish equilibrium.
4. Limits of Tolerance
The survival and reproduction of an organism depend on the presence
of nutrients and the ability of the organism to withstand the various
abiotic factors present. If any necessary substance is present in low
amounts, the growth of the plant is reduced, even if all of the other
necessary substances are abundant.
Law of the Minimum – the nutrient in the least supply is the one that
limits growth.
Law of Tolerance – an organism can survive within (tolerate) a
particular range of an abiotic factor; above and below this range, it
cannot survive. For example, the population of a fish species has an
optimum temperature range. They cannot survive beyond this range.
Density – Independent and Density –
Dependent Factors

Density - Independent Factor – a Density – Dependent Factor – a

factor in an ecosystem that affects factor in an ecosystem that affects
members of a population members of a population because
regardless of population density. of the population density. The
Fire and flood for example, will density dependent factors will
affect a population regardless of its cause higher mortality rates,
size. lowering population density.
Table 2. Factors That Cause Changes in
Populations

Density – Independent Factors Density – Dependent Factors

• Flood • Food shortage

• Fire • Competition for mates, breeding areas
• Spraying with pesticides (habitat)
• Changes in climate or temperature • Disease caused by a microorganism or
• Destruction of habitat parasite
• Drought • Introduction of an exotic species
• Increased predation
• Competition for water and other resources
Changes in Terrestrial Ecosystems
Forestry practices – deforestation is one way that humans change ecosystems.
Three categories of deforestation
1. Slash–and-burn – bulldozers remove all vegetation then the debris is piled up and burned to
provide soil nutrients for future crops.
2. Clear-cutting – the removal of all trees in an area for timber or pulp. This is followed by
replanting the dominant species.
3. Selective cutting – only certain trees are harvested from an area leaving others to regenerate
the area.
Effects of fire – fire is an important and often helpful cause of change in ecosystems. Fire creates
and maintains a mosaic of different vegetation types. Lightning causes some fires.
Prescribed burns – a controlled fire deliberately set in a designated area. Many workers are
involved and the fire is carefully put out after the prescribed area is burned.
 Changes in Lake Ecosystems
• There are 2 kinds of lakes:
1. Oligotrophic lakes – typically deep and cold. Nutrient levels are low,
which limits the size of producer populations. There are limited
numbers of only a few types of organisms. Therefore the water is
usually clear.
2. Eutrophic lakes – generally shallow and warmer and have an
excellent supply of nutrients. There are many different species of
photosynthetic organisms. Thus, the water is often murky.
Generally oligotrophic lakes become eutrophic over time. Eutrophic
lakes become increasingly shallow, eventually filling in and becoming
dry land. This is called eutrophication and may take hundreds of years.
Oligotrophic lake Eutrophic lake
 Water Pollution
Humansmay
• Humans mayaccelerate
accelerateeutrophication
eutrophication by by adding
adding nutrient
nutrient rich rich substances
substances to lakes.
to lakes. Some
examples are: human
Some examples are: waste,
humanfertilizer
waste, in runoff from
fertilizer agricultural
in runoff land, household
from agricultural land,and
industrial
household waste, and thermal
and industrial energy.
waste, andWater
thermalpollution is any
energy. physical
Water or chemical
pollution is any change
physicalin
surface or groundwater
or chemical that can or
change in surface harm living things.
groundwater There
that canare
harm5 categories:
living things. There are
5 categories:
• Organic solid waste – sewage and waste from food processing. As this matter is
• decomposed
Organic solidby bacteria,
waste O2 in the
– sewage andwater
waste is from
used up.
food processing. As this matter is
• Disease-causing
decomposed byorganisms
bacteria, –Ofrom sewage and animal waste. These organisms can trigger
2 in the water is used up.
an outbreak of a waterborne disease (ie. typhoid).
• Disease-causing organisms – from sewage and animal waste. These organisms can
• Inorganic
trigger ansolids and dissolved
outbreak minerals disease
of a waterborne – mining(ie.waste, fertilizers, and salt from road runoff
typhoid).
in winter.
• Inorganic solids and dissolved minerals – mining waste, fertilizers, and salt from road
• Thermal energy (heat) – from electricity generating plants and industry. Heat decreases the
runoff in winter.
solubility of O2.
• Thermal energy (heat) – from electricity generating plants and industry. Heat
• Organic compounds – oil, pesticides, and detergents are toxic to various organisms.
decreases the solubility
Organophosphates of O2. promote algae growth which decreases dissolved O
in detergents 2
Organic compounds – oil, pesticides, and detergents are toxic to various organisms.
• levels.
 Indicators of Water Quality
• Three main indicators:
1. Bacteria count – Coliform bacteria, a type of bacteria that occurs naturally in the
intestines of humans and other animals. It indicates the presence of fecal
contamination in water.
2. Dissolved oxygen – As dissolved oxygen levels drop, fewer organisms can be
supported. Several different solutions can be used to test for O2. Another test is to
examine the living things found in the water. For example, the presence of trout
indicates a high O2 level. The presence of carp and catfish indicate a low level.
3. Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) – the amount of dissolved O2 needed by
decomposers (bacteria) to completely break down the organic matter in a water
sample at 20°C over five days. As the number of organisms in an ecosystem
increases, so does the biological O2 demand. A cold, less productive lake with fewer
organisms may have a BOD of 2 mg of O2 per liter, while a more productive lake with
many organisms may have a BOD of 20 mg/L.
 Changes in Alberta Lakes
• Shorelines in some Alberta lakes are receding at alarming rates.
• Watershed – the land that drains toward a lake or other body of water.
• Cottage dwellers have altered shorelines in a number of ways.
• Making sandy beaches increases erosion. Planting lawns increases N and P
runoff from fertilizers.
• Removing shoreline plants removes a filtering system which slows harmful
chemicals from entering lakes.
• Shoreline plants produce shade. Their removal warms the water faster,
decreasing O2 levels in the lake.
• Sewage from outhouses may seep into the lake. The high levels of nutrients
released causes the eutrophication of the lake and further decreases O2
levels.
Lab 4.3 – Biological Oxygen
Demand and Organic Pollutants
How Wolves Change Rivers
• https://blog.ted.com/video-how-wolves-can-alter-the-course-of-rivers
/