Computer Types

Since their introduction in the 1940s, digital computers have evolved into many
different types that vary widely in size, cost, computational power, and intended use.
Modern computers can be divided roughly into four general categories:
• Embedded computers are integrated into a larger device or system in order to
automatically monitor and control a physical process or environment. They are used
for a specific purpose rather than for general processing tasks. Typical applications
include industrial and home automation, appliances, telecommunication products, and
vehicles. Users may not even be aware of the role that computers play in such systems.
• Personal computers have achieved widespread use in homes, educational institutions,
and business and engineering office settings, primarily for dedicated individual use.
They support a variety of applications such as general computation, document
preparation, computer-aided design, audiovisual entertainment, interpersonal
communication, and Internet browsing. A number of classifications are used for
personal computers. Desktop computers serve general needs and fit within a typical
personal workspace. Workstation computers offer higher computational capacity and
more powerful graphical display capabilities for engineering and scientific work. Finally,
Portable and Notebook computers provide the basic features of a personal computer in
a smaller lightweight package. They can operate on batteries to provide mobility.
 Computer Types cont…
• Servers and Enterprise systems are large computers that are meant to be
shared by a potentially large number of users who access them from some form
of personal computer over a public or private network. Such computers may
host large databases and provide information processing for a government
agency or a commercial organization.
• Supercomputers and Grid computers normally offer the highest performance.
They are the most expensive and physically the largest category of computers.
Supercomputers are used for the highly demanding computations needed in
weather forecasting, engineering design and simulation, and scientific work.
They have a high cost. Grid computers provide a more cost-effective alternative.
They combine a large number of personal computers and disk storage units in a
physically distributed high-speed network, called a grid, which is managed as a
coordinated computing resource. By evenly distributing the computational
workload across the grid, it is possible to achieve high performance on large
applications ranging from numerical computation to information searching.
 Functional Units
• A computer consists of five functionally independent main parts: input, memory, arithmetic
and logic, output, and control units, as shown in Figure 1.1. The input unit accepts coded
information from human operators using devices such as keyboards, or from other
computers over digital communication lines. The information received is stored in the
computer’s memory, either for later use or to be processed immediately by the arithmetic
and logic unit. The processing steps are specified by a program that is also stored in the
memory. Finally, the results are sent back to the outside world through the output unit. All of
these actions are coordinated by the control unit. An interconnection network provides the
means for the functional units to exchange information and coordinate their actions.
Figure 1.1 Basic functional units of a computer.
 Input Unit
• Computers accept coded information through input units. The most
common input device is the keyboard. Whenever a key is pressed,
the corresponding letter or digit is automatically translated into its
corresponding binary code and transmitted to the processor.
• Many other kinds of input devices for human-computer interaction
are available, including the touchpad, mouse, joystick, and trackball.
These are often used as graphic input devices in conjunction with
displays. Microphones can be used to capture audio input which is
then sampled and converted into digital codes for storage and
processing. Similarly, cameras can be used to capture video input.
• Digital communication facilities, such as the Internet, can also
provide input to a computer from other computers and database
servers.
 Memory Unit
• The function of the memory unit is to store programs and data. There are two classes of
storage, called primary and secondary.
Primary Memory
• Primary memory, also called main memory, is a fast memory that operates at electronic
speeds. Programs must be stored in this memory while they are being executed. The
memory consists of a large number of semiconductor storage cells, each capable of storing
one bit of information. These cells are rarely read or written individually. Instead, they are
handled in groups of fixed size called words. The memory is organized so that one word can
be stored or retrieved in one basic operation. The number of bits in each word is referred to
as the word length of the computer, typically 16, 32, or 64 bits. Ex. RAM and ROM
Cache Memory
• As an adjunct to the main memory, a smaller, faster RAM unit, called a cache, is used to hold
sections of a program that are currently being executed, along with any associated data. The
cache is tightly coupled with the processor and is usually contained on the same integrated-
circuit chip. The purpose of the cache is to facilitate high instruction execution rates.
Secondary Storage
• Although primary memory is essential, it tends to be expensive and does not retain
information when power is turned off. Thus additional, less expensive, permanent secondary
storage is used when large amounts of data and many programs have to be stored,
particularly for information that is accessed infrequently. Access times for secondary storage
are longer than for primary memory. A wide selection of secondary storage devices is
 Arithmetic and Logic Unit
• Most computer operations are executed in the arithmetic and
logic unit (ALU) of the processor. Any arithmetic or logic
operation, such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, division,
or comparison of numbers, is initiated by bringing the required
operands into the processor, where the operation is performed
by the ALU. For example, if two numbers located in the memory
are to be added, they are brought into the processor, and the
addition is carried out by the ALU. The sum may then be stored in
the memory or retained in the processor for immediate use.
• When operands are brought into the processor, they are stored
in high-speed storage elements called registers. Each register can
store one word of data. Access times to registers are even shorter
than access times to the cache unit on the processor chip.
 Output Unit
• The output unit is the counterpart of the input unit. Its function is
to send processed results to the outside world. A familiar example
of such a device is a printer. Most printers employ either
photocopying techniques, as in laser printers, or ink jet streams.
Such printers may generate output at speeds of 20 or more pages
per minute. However, printers are mechanical devices, and as
such are quite slow compared to the electronic speed of a
processor.
• Some units, such as graphic displays, provide both an output
function, showing text and graphics, and an input function,
through touch screen capability. The dual role of such units is the
reason for using the single name input/output (I/O) unit in many
cases.
 Control Unit
• The memory, arithmetic and logic, and I/O units store and process information and perform
input and output operations. The operation of these units must be coordinated in some way.
This is the responsibility of the control unit. The control unit is effectively the nerve center
that sends control signals to other units and senses their states.
• I/O transfers, consisting of input and output operations, are controlled by program
instructions that identify the devices involved and the information to be transferred. Control
circuits are responsible for generating the timing signals that govern the transfers and
determine when a given action is to take place. Data transfers between the processor and
the memory are also managed by the control unit through timing signals. It is reasonable to
think of a control unit as a well-defined, physically separate unit that interacts with other
parts of the computer. In practice, however, this is seldom the case. Much of the control
circuitry is physically distributed throughout the computer. A large set of control lines (wires)
carries the signals used for timing and synchronization of events in all units.
• The operation of a computer can be summarized as follows:
• • The computer accepts information in the form of programs and data through an input unit
and stores it in the memory.
• • Information stored in the memory is fetched under program control into an arithmetic and
logic unit, where it is processed.
• • Processed information leaves the computer through an output unit.
• • All activities in the computer are directed by the control unit.
 Bus Structure
• The bus shown in Figure is a simple structure
that implements the interconnection network.
Only one source/destination pair of units can
use this bus to transfer data at any one time.
 Bus Structure cont…
• The bus consists of three sets of lines used to carry address, data, and control signals.
I/O device interfaces are connected to these lines, as shown in Figure for an input
device. Each I/O device is assigned a unique set of addresses for the registers in its
interface. When the processor places a particular address on the address lines, it is
examined by the address decoders of all devices on the bus. The device that
recognizes this address responds to the commands issued on the control lines. The
processor uses the control lines to request either a Read or a Write operation, and
the requested data are transferred over the data lines.
 Bus Operation
• A bus requires a set of rules, often called a bus protocol, that govern
how the bus is used by various devices. The bus protocol determines
when a device may place information on the bus, when it may load the
data on the bus into one of its registers, and so on. These rules are
implemented by control signals that indicate what and when actions are
to be taken.
• One control line, usually labeled R/W, specifies whether a Read or a
Write operation is to be performed. As the label suggests, it specifies
Read when set to 1 and Write when set to 0. When several data sizes
are possible, such as byte, halfword, or word, the required size is
indicated by other control lines. The bus control lines also carry timing
information. They specify the times at which the processor and the I/O
devices may place data on or receive data from the data lines. A variety
of schemes have been devised for the timing of data transfers over a
bus. These can be broadly classified as either synchronous or
asynchronous schemes.
 Bus arbitration
• Suppose more than one device wants to be a
bus master then who will be the bus master.
This is bus arbitration problem. There are two
basic schemes for that : centralized and
decentralized (distributed)
Figure : (a) Simple centralized bus arbitration; (b) centralized arbitration with priority
levels; (c) fully centralized bus arbitration; (d) decentralized bus arbitration