Concept of Intelligence and its Theories

by
Dr.Rehana
JRF, NET, SET, CTET
• Intelligence is a complex and multifaceted trait that refers to the ability of an
entity, typically a living organism, to acquire, understand, process, and apply
knowledge or information.

• It involves various cognitive skills, such as reasoning, problem-solving,

learning, perception, memory, language comprehension, and decision-making.

• In humans, intelligence encompasses a broad range of abilities, including logical

thinking, creativity, emotional intelligence, social skills, and adaptability. It is not
solely limited to academic or intellectual pursuits but also includes practical and
social aspects of life.

•
• In the popular sense, intelligence is often defined as the general mental ability to
learn and apply knowledge to manipulate your environment, as well as the ability to
reason and have abstract thought.

• Other definitions of intelligence include adaptability to a new environment or to

changes in the current environment,

• The ability to evaluate and judge, the ability to comprehend complex ideas,

• The ability to learn quickly and learn from experience and even the ability to
comprehend relationships.
 Characterstics of intelligence

• there are several commonly recognized characteristics and traits associated

with intelligence. Here are some key characteristics of intelligence:

• 1. Cognitive Abilities: Intelligence involves various cognitive abilities, such

as reasoning, problem-solving, critical thinking, memory, attention, and learning.
Individuals with higher intelligence tend to excel in these cognitive domains.

• 2. Adaptability: Intelligent individuals demonstrate the ability to adapt to new

situations, learn from experience, and apply their knowledge to different
contexts.

• They can quickly grasp new concepts, adjust their strategies, and solve
problems effectively.
• 3. Abstract Thinking: It enables individuals to think beyond the immediate
context and understand complex ideas, symbols, and concepts. Abstract
thinking helps in forming mental models and understanding relationships
between different elements.

• 4. Creativity: Intelligence and creativity are closely related. Intelligent

individuals often exhibit a high level of creativity, which involves generating novel
ideas, thinking outside the box, and finding innovative solutions to problems.
They can make connections between seemingly unrelated concepts.

• 5. Reasoning and Logic: Intelligence encompasses the ability to reason

logically, analyze information, and draw conclusions based on evidence.
• 6. Verbal and Linguistic Skills: Intelligence is often associated with strong
verbal and linguistic abilities. Intelligent individuals typically have a rich
vocabulary, express themselves articulately, and have good reading
comprehension and writing skills.

• 7. Emotional Intelligence: In addition to cognitive abilities, emotional

intelligence is an important aspect of overall intelligence.
• Emotional intelligence involves understanding and managing one's emotions
and the emotions of others. It includes empathy, self-awareness, social skills,
and the ability to navigate interpersonal relationships effectively.

• 8. Generalization: Intelligent individuals can often apply knowledge and

skills across different domains. They can transfer what they have learned in one
context to another and generalize principles or strategies to new situations.
• Definitions of Intelligence Some of the important definitions of Intelligence are
as follows:
• Thorndike “Intelligence is the ability to make profitable use of past experiences”

• Ross “Conscious adaptation to new situation is intelligence”

• According to Woodworth, Intelligence is the capacity to deal with novel situations

successfully.

• Jean Piaget: Jean Piaget was a developmental psychologist .He viewed

intelligence as the ability to adapt to and interact with the environment through
assimilation and accommodation processes.
 Two factor theory Spearman:

• Charles E. Spearman was a British psychologist, Charles Edward Spearman

proposed his two-factor theory of intelligence in 1904.

• He was the first who introduced the concept of general intelligence called the “g”
factor. To develop his theory, he analyzed different mental aptitude and
cognitive tests given by the participants.

• He noticed that those who had a good score in one aptitude test had also scored
well in other aptitude tests, and those who performed badly in one test also
performed similarly in other tests, which represents that there exists a factor
that is common to all the intellectual and cognitive abilities of the person.
• Using the factor analysis technique, a technique through which various
correlated variables are reduced to the lower number of factors.

• Spearman stated there exists a common factor in all the cognitive abilities of the
person, he called this common factor a general factor or ”g” factor.

• He proposed that intelligence consists of two factors, i.e., the ”g” factor (general
ability) and the ”s” factor (specific ability),

• where the ”g” factor is involved in every general mental ability task of the
person, and the ”s” factor is responsible for only the specific intellectual abilities
of the person.
• The performance by the individual is determined by the G-factor and the S-
factors. The total intelligence of the individual is the sum total of the G-factor and
the S-factors.

• The performance of a particular task depends on the ‘G’ factor or general ability
and the particular ‘S’ factor or specific ability.

• Different individuals differed both in their ‘G’ as well as ‘S’ factors. For e.g. an
individual’s performance in literature is partly due to his general intelligence and
partly due some specific aptitude for his language, i.e. G+S1.

• In mathematics his performance may be the result of G+S2. In drawing, it may

be due to G+S3 and in social sciences; it may be due to G+S4 and so on. Thus
the factor ‘G’ is present in all specific activities.
 Characteristics of ‘G’ Factor:
• It is universal inborn ability.
• It is general mental energy.
• It is constant.
• The amount of ‘g’ differs from individual to individual.
• It is used in every activity of life.
• Greater the ‘g’ in an individual, greater is his success in life.
• Characteristics of ‘S’ Factor

• It is learned and acquired in the environment. 

• It varies from activity to activity in the same individual.
• Individuals differ in the amount of ‘S’ ability.
Educational implications
• 1. Identification of students' strengths and weaknesses: The theory
highlights the existence of both general intelligence and specific abilities.
Educators can use this information to assess students' overall intellectual
capabilities and identify their areas of strengths and weaknesses. By
understanding the specific abilities, teachers can provide targeted instruction
and support to enhance learning.

• 2. Differentiated instruction: Recognizing that students possess different

specific abilities, educators can tailor instruction to meet the individual needs
of students. By incorporating a variety of teaching methods and materials that
target different cognitive skills, educators can engage students with varying
strengths and help them develop their potential.
• 3. Assessment and evaluation: Spearman's theory suggests that
intelligence is not a single, unitary construct but rather a combination of
general and specific abilities.

• Therefore, educators can design assessments that measure both general

intelligence and specific abilities to gain a comprehensive understanding of
students' cognitive profiles.

• This can inform instructional planning and provide valuable insights into
students' progress and areas that require further development.
• 4. Talent identification and enrichment: The theory implies that certain
students may have exceptional specific abilities in particular areas.

• Educators can use this information to identify and nurture students' talents.
Schools may offer specialized programs or enrichment activities that focus on
developing these specific abilities, allowing students to further explore and
excel in their areas of strength.
• 5. Individualized education plans: Spearman's Two-Factor Theory
supports the notion of individualized education plans that are tailored to
students' unique cognitive profiles.

• By considering both the general intelligence and specific abilities of students,

educators can design personalized learning experiences that accommodate
their diverse needs and optimize their academic growth.
 Thorndike theory of Intelligence
• Thorndike believed that there was nothing like General Ability. Each mental
activity requires an aggregate of different set of abilities. He distinguished the
following four attributes of intelligence :

• 1 Level : difficulty of a task that can be solved. If we think of all test items
arranged in a sequential order of increasing difficulty, then the height that we
can ascend on this ladder of difficulty determines our level of intelligence.

• 2. Range: This refers to the number of tasks at any given degree of difficulty
that we can solve. Range is determined not only by Level but also by the
Breadth of experience and by opportunity to learn. In intelligence tests range
is represensted by items of equal difficulty.
• 3. Area: It refers to the total number of situations at each level to which the
individual is able to respond. Area is the summation of all the ranges at each
level of intelligence processed by an individual.

• 4. Speed : This is the rapidity with which an individual can respond to items.

• Speed and attitude are positively related. Speed is much closely bound up
with attitude than are the other attributes. We should not therefore emphasis
speed too much in our intelligence test
Thurstone Multi factor theory of Intelligence:
• Thurstone used the new advanced technique of factor analyses to
understand the various factors related to human intelligence. In his research,
he conducted 57 psychological mental abilities tests on the group of subjects.

• Based on the gathered data, Thurstone stated that there exist seven different
mental abilities factors, and he called them the primary mental abilities
(P.M.A.).
• He rejected to accept the general intelligence or g-factor of Spearman’s theory
because Thurstone’s seven mental abilities fitted better as per the obtained data as
compared to Spearman’s general intelligence (g-factor).

• However, Thurstone stated that human intellectual abilities are diverse, and he
established his multi-factor theory of intelligence (1935) he focuses on the seven
different primary mental abilities.

• He stated that every individual possesses different levels of these seven factors,
and these levels do not depend on each other, and each of these abilities can be
evaluated separately. He suggested focusing on the individual’s scores in various
mental abilities instead of focusing only on the intelligence quotient of the person.
• •Verbal ability. This factor involves a person’s ability to understand verbal
material. It is measured by tests such as vocabulary and reading
comprehension, This ability is involved in rapidly producing words,
sentences, and other verbal material.

• Numerical ability. This ability is involved in rapid arithmetic computation and

in solving simple arithmetic word problems.

• • Perceptual speed Factor: This ability is involved in proofreading and in

rapid recognition of letters and numbers. It is measured by tests such as
those requiring the crossing out of As in a long string of letters or in tests
requiring recognition of which of several pictures at the right is identical to the
picture at the left. how easily u r understanding is called perceptual speed.
• Spatial ability: This ability is involved in visualizing shapes, rotations of
objects, and how pieces of a puzzle fit together. 3d images are made in
mind.
• interior designers, achitects.

• Memory . It means the ability to recall and associate previously learned

items effectively or memorize quickly.

• word fluecy: The ability to produce words or ideas quickly in response to a

stimulus.

• Reasoning: Logical thinking and problem-solving abilities.

Educational Implications
• As stated by Thurstone, each primary mental ability is independent of the other, and people
have different degrees of these abilities in them. The teacher can try to improve the different
primary mental abilities of the students by involving them in various intellectual activities.

• When a student is doing any specific tasks, single or multiple abilities out of the primary
mental abilities stated by Thurston are involved. One mental ability could play a more
important role in a particular task than the other. Schools or teachers can use the primary
mental ability test constructed by Thurstone to select the students in different tasks or
vocations according to the supreme mental ability present in the student.
• As stated by Thurstone, each primary mental ability is independent of the other, and people have
different degrees of these abilities in them. The teacher can try to improve the different primary mental
abilities of the students by involving them in various intellectual activities.

• Individual Differences: Thurstone's theory emphasizes that individuals have unique profiles of primary
mental abilities. Educators should recognize and accommodate these differences. This means that a
student might excel in one area of intelligence while struggling in another, and teaching strategies
should be adapted accordingly.

• Diverse Curriculum: In an educational context, Thurstone's theory suggests the importance of offering a
diverse curriculum that caters to the various primary mental abilities. This might include providing
opportunities for students to develop their strengths and address their weaknesses.

• a
• Assessment: Traditional IQ tests, which often focus on a single general intelligence factor, may not
capture the full range of a student's abilities according to Thurstone's theory. Educators should consider
using a broader range of assessment tools that examine specific primary mental abilities. This can
provide a more comprehensive view of a student's strengths and weaknesses.

• Teaching Strategies: Teachers should adapt their teaching methods to address the specific primary
mental abilities of their students. For example, if a student shows a strong spatial visualization ability,
incorporating visual aids and spatial reasoning tasks into the curriculum can be beneficial.

• Research and Curriculum Development: Educational researchers can use Thurstone's theory to guide
the development of more targeted and effective curricula. By considering primary mental abilities,
educators can develop teaching materials and methods that align with how students learn best.
• Special Education: Thurstone's theory can inform the development of special education programs.
Students with different profiles of primary mental abilities may require different types of support and
interventions. Tailoring special education plans to match a student's unique abilities can lead to more
effective learning outcomes.

• Individualized Instruction: Education that considers the multiple factors of intelligence can benefit from
individualized instruction. Recognizing and working with each student's primary mental abilities can
help educators design learning experiences that cater to the strengths of each individual.

• Career Guidance: Thurstone's theory has implications for career counseling and guidance. It suggests
that individuals may excel in different areas and that career choices should be made based on a
person's unique primary mental abilities. Understanding a student's profile can guide them toward
careers that match their strengths.
 Guilford theory of intellect
• J. P. Guilford and his associates have developed a model of intellect on the
basis of factor analysis of several tests employed for testing intelligence of
the human beings.
• They have come to the conclusion that any mental process or intellectual
activity of the human being can be described in termsof three basic
dimensions or parameters known as contents (the type of information
involved): operations (way of processing information) and products ( the
ideas we come up with). This model proposes that intelligence consists of 1.0
independent ability that result from the interaction of five types of contents,
six types of operations, six types of products.
• Each of these parameters-operations, contents and products may be further
subdivided into some specific factors and elements. As a result,
• operations may be subdivided into 6 specific factors
• contents into 5 and products into 6.

• The interaction of these three parameters, according to Guildford, thus result

into the 6x5x6x=120 different elements or factors in one's intelligence.
• In a figural form, these 120 factors or independent abilities of the human
beings along with the basic parameters and their divisions can be
represented through a model named as Guildford's model of intellect or
intelligence. What is implied by these contents, operations and products can
be understood through the following brief description:
 Contents
The types of information involved in:
• 1. Figural (visual)- The properties of stimuli we can experience through visual
senses e.g. color, size, shape. texture and other visual characteristics of
figure.
• Figural (Auditory)- The properties of stimuli we can experience through the
auditory sense e.g. voice and sound.
• 2. Symbolic- number; letters, symbols; designs.
• 3. Semantic-the meaning of words, ideas, concept formation.
• 4. Behavioral-the actions and expressions of people.
 Operations:
• The way of processing the information.
• 1. Cognition: recognizing and discovering the information.
• 2. Memory-retaining and recalling the contents of thought.
• 3. Divergent production -producing a variety of ideas or solution to a problem.
• 4. Convergent production -producing a single best solution to a problem.
• 5. Evaluation -taking decision about the nature of the intellectual contents or
gathered information whether it is relevant or irrelevant, adequate or
inadequate.
 Products:
• Operations the products obtained through Operations.
• 1. Units-Individual, piece of information limited in size e.g. a single number, letter or word or
one answer.

• 2. Classes- groups of units of information related to each other on the basis of some
common characteristics involving a higher order concept (e.g. men + women =people)

• 3. Relations- a connection between concepts.

• 4. Systems- an ordering or classification of relations.
• 5. Transformation -altering or restructuring intellectual contents.
• 6. Implication-making inferences from separate pieces of information.
 Educational Implications of Guilford Theory of Intelligence

• Assists in Gathering Data

• The educational implication of Guildford’s Theory of Intelligence helps in gathering and
understanding information for a better analysis of students’ intelligence.

• Decision-Making
• The educational implication of Guildford’s Theory of Intelligence helps in responsible
decision-making and smart problem-solving skills which can be beneficial for the learners as
well as their teachers.

• Discover Mental Abilities

• The educational implication of Guildford’s Theory of Intelligence provides assistance in
discovering many mental abilities and cognitive capabilities that people weren’t aware of
before.
• Fosters Creativity
• The educational implication of Guildford’s Theory of Intelligence helps in
making an individual creative, practical, analytical and logical.

• Analyzes Different Types of Intelligence

• The educational implication of Guildford’s Theory of Intelligence assists in
understanding the intelligence of different age groups.

• Better Understanding of Individual Differences

• The educational implication of Guildford’s Theory of Intelligence can aid in
studying individual differences in society.