Long distance Communication

• We need to use a carrier signals for long distance networking.

• We use a modem to modulate/demodulate the carriers. This is how

information is transmitted.
• Sending Signals Across Long Distances

The voltage placed on a line at a source drops off with distance and is not
detectable from far away. This phenomenon of signal loss or attenuation
explains why simple voltage-changing standards such as RS-232 are not
suitable for long distance communication.
• What's worse is that different pure frequencies attenuate at different rates,
so a composite signal suffers distortion as it attenuates.
Fortunately, a carrier, a continuously oscillating wave form such as a sine
wave will propagate much further than signals such as those generated by
RS-232. This kind of signal reinforces itself.
• The sender modifies (modulates) the carrier slightly to get the effect of
transmitting data. The receiver extracts the information by decoding
(demodulating) the modulation.
Amplitude modulation (am) modifies the amplitude of the carrier to
convey meaning.
• Frequency modulation (fm) modifies the frequency.
• Phase shift modulation performs a translation (sliding) of the wave
form. It is easier to get higher data rates with phase shift modulation --
you don't need to wait for a whole cycle of the wave form to pass
through, so phase shift modulation is very prevalent in data networking.
MODEM
• Modem Hardware Used For Modulation And Demodulation

A modem functions as a modulator in one direction: it inputs digital

information on one side and uses the digital information to modulate a carrier.
The modulated carrier transmits information across a long-distance line.

• A modem also functions as a de-modulator in one direction: it inputs a

modulated carrier signal on one side, extracts the digital information that was
used to modulate the carrier, and transmits the digital information to a local
receiver such as a computer connected to the modem.
 Multiplexing
Multiplexing is a process that combines multiple signals or
streams of information into one signal over a shared
medium. It's used in telecommunications and computer
networking to share a physical transmission medium and
increase data transmission efficiency.
• What is Multiplexing?
Multiplexing is the sharing of a medium or bandwidth.
It is the process in which multiple signals coming from
multiple sources are combined and transmitted over a
single communication/physical line.
Types of Multiplexing
•
There are Five types of Multiplexing :
1.Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
2.Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM)
3.Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)
4.Code-division multiplexing (CDM)
5.Space-division multiplexing (SDM):
 1. Frequency Division
Multiplexing
• Frequency division multiplexing is defined as a type of
multiplexing where the bandwidth of a single physical
medium is divided into a number of smaller,
independent frequency channels.
• Frequency Division Multiplexing is used in radio and
television transmission.

In FDM, we can observe a lot of inter-channel cross-talk,

due to the fact that in this type of multiplexing the
bandwidth is divided into frequency channels. In order
to prevent the inter-channel cross talk, unused strips of
bandwidth must be placed between each channel.
These unused strips between each channel are known
as guard bands.
2. Time Division Multiplexing :

• Time-division multiplexing is defined as a type of

multiplexing wherein FDM, instead of sharing a portion
of the bandwidth in the form of channels, in TDM, time
is shared. Each connection occupies a portion of time in
the link.
• In Time Division Multiplexing, all signals operate with
the same frequency (bandwidth) at different times.
There are two types of Time Division Multiplexing :
Synchronous Time Division Multiplexing
Statistical (or Asynchronous) Time Division Multiplexing

• Synchronous TDM :
• Synchronous TDM is a type of Time Division Multiplexing
where the input frame already has a slot in the output frame.
Time slots are grouped into frames. One frame consists
of one cycle of time slots.
• Synchronous TDM is not efficient because if the input frame
has no data to send, a slot remains empty in the output frame.
• In synchronous TDM, we need to mention the synchronous bit
at the beginning of each frame.
Statistical TDM :

• Statistical TDM is a type of Time Division Multiplexing

where the output frame collects data from the input
frame till it is full, not leaving an empty slot like in
Synchronous TDM.
• In statistical TDM, we need to include the address of
each particular data in the slot that is being sent to the
output frame.
Statistical TDM is a more efficient type of time-
division multiplexing as the channel capacity is
fully utilized and improves the bandwidth
efficiency.
. 3. Wavelength Division
Multiplexing :
• Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) is a
multiplexing technology used to increase the capacity of
optical fiber by transmitting multiple optical signals
simultaneously over a single optical fiber, each with a
different wavelength. Each signal is carried on a
different wavelength of light, and the resulting signals
are combined onto a single optical fiber for
transmission. At the receiving end, the signals are
separated by their wavelengths, demultiplexed and
routed to their respective destinations.
• WDM can be divided into two categories: Dense
Wavelength Division Multiplexing (DWDM) and Coarse
Wavelength Division Multiplexing (CWDM).
• DWDM is used to multiplex a large number of optical
signals onto a single fiber, typically up to 80 channels
with a spacing of 0.8 nm or less between the channels.
• CWDM is used for lower-capacity applications, typically
up to 18 channels with a spacing of 20 nm between the
channels.
4. Space-division multiplexing
(SDM) :
• Space Division Multiplexing (SDM) is a technique used in wireless
communication systems to increase the capacity of the system by exploiting
the physical separation of users.
• In SDM, multiple antennas are used at both the transmitter and receiver ends
to create parallel communication channels. These channels are independent
of each other, which allows for multiple users to transmit data
simultaneously in the same frequency band without interference. The
capacity of the system can be increased by adding more antennas, which
creates more independent channels.
• SDM is commonly used in wireless communication systems such as cellular
networks, Wi-Fi, and satellite communication systems. In cellular networks,
SDM is used in the form of Multiple Input Multiple Output (MIMO) technology,
which uses multiple antennas at both the transmitter and receiver ends to
improve the quality and capacity of the communication link.
5. Code-division multiplexing
(CDM) :
• Code division multiplexing (CDM) is a technique used in
telecommunications to allow multiple users to transmit data
simultaneously over a single communication channel. In CDM, each user
is assigned a unique code that is used to modulate their signal. The
modulated signals are then combined and transmitted over the same
channel. At the receiving end, each user’s signal is demodulated using
their unique code to retrieve their original data.
• In CDM, each user is assigned a unique spreading code that is used to
spread the data signal. This spreading code is typically a binary
sequence that is much longer than the original data signal. The
spreading code is multiplied with the data signal to generate a spread
spectrum signal that has a much wider bandwidth than the original data
signal. The spread spectrum signals of all users are then combined and
transmitted over the same channel.
• CDM is commonly used in wireless communication
systems such as cellular networks and satellite
communication systems. It allows multiple users to
share the same frequency band and increases the
capacity of the communication channel. CDM also
provides some level of security as the signals of
different users are difficult to intercept or jam.