COMPUTER NETWORKS

M21DE0203
 COURSE OBJECTIVE
• The subject will introduce the basics of computer
networks to students through a study of layered
models of computer networks and applications.
• To analyze the functions and design strategies of
various layers.
• To understand network architectures and
components required for data communication.
• To understand networking concepts and basic
communication model.
• To gain knowledge of various application protocols
standard developed for internet Layer.

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COURSE OUTCOME
At the end of the course, students would be able to
1.Trace the flow of information from one node to
another node in the network.
2.Identify the components required to build different
types of networks.
3.Estimate the functionalities needed for data
communication into layers
4.Choose the required functionality at each layer for
given application
5.Understand the working principles of various
application protocols
6.Identify the security issues and services available.

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COURSE SYLLABUS

Unit I: Introduction to Data communication &

Network

Unit II: Physical Layer

Unit III: Data Link Layer

Unit IV: Network & Transport Layer

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UNIT II

Physical Layer:

Analog & digital signals, Transmission impairment,

Performance, Data transmission: serial transmission, parallel
transmission; Transmission media: guided and unguided
media; Data interface types, Band utilization- multiplexing;
Switching techniques.

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 TEXT BOOKS

1. Data communications and Networking by Berhrouz A

Forouzan , McGraw-Hill Publication
[Chapters: 1,2,3]
2. Computer Networks by Andrew S. Tanenbaum , Pearson
Publication.
[Chapters: 1,2,3,4,5&6]
3. A guide to designing & Implementing Local and wide area
network by Michael Palmer, Robert Bruce Sinclair,
Thomson Publication.
[Chapters: 3,4,5]

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 PHYSICAL LAYER

 One of the major functions of the physical layer is to move data in

the form of electromagnetic signals across a transmission
medium.
Signal: A signal is an electrical or electromagnetic current that is
used for carrying data from one device or network to another.
To be transmitted, data must be transformed to electromagnetic
signals.

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DIGITAL AND ANALOG SIGNALS

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CHARACTERISTICS OF SIGNAL
CHARACTERISTICS OF ANALOG SIGNAL -
AMPLITUDE
CHARACTERISTICS OF ANALOG SIGNAL –
PERIOD/FREQUENCY
Period refers to the
amount of time, in
seconds, a signal
needs to complete 1
cycle.

Frequency refers to the

number of periods in I s.
CHARACTERISTICS OF ANALOG SIGNAL – PHASE

Phase describes the

position of the waveform
relative to time O.
CHARACTERISTICS OF DIGITAL SIGNALS – BIT RATE
ANALOGUE & DIGITAL DEVICES
CONVERSION SCHEMES
ANALOGUE-DIGITAL CONVERSION

Devices used to covert analogue signal to digital signal .

DIGITAL- ANALOGUE CONVERSION

Devices used to convert digital signal to analogue signal.

DIGITAL- DIGITAL CONVERSION
Unipolar Encoding
NRZ-L Encoding (Polar)
Manchester Encoding (Polar)
Bipolar
ANALOG – ANALOG CONVERSION
Amplitude modulation
• Baseband signals are the band of frequencies
representing the original signal.
• Modulation is the technique of superimposing a low-
frequency signal over a high-frequency carrier signal.
Amplitude modulation

The carrier signal is

modulated so that its
amplitude varies with the
changing amplitudes of
the modulating
signal(Baseband signal).
The frequency and phase
of the carrier remain the
same.
Frequency modulation

Frequency Modulation is the

encoding of information in a
carrier wave by varying the
frequency of the carrier wave
at that instant corresponding
to the variation of the base
waveform to be transmitted.
Phase modulation
TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENT
TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENT
TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENT
TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENT -
ATTENUATION
TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENT
TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENT - DISTORTION
TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENT
TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENT -
NOISE
• Several types of noise, such as thermal noise, induced
noise, crosstalk, and impulse noise, may corrupt the
signal.
• Thermal noise is the random motion of electrons in a
wire which creates an extra signal not originally sent
by the transmitter.
• Induced noise comes from sources such as motors
and appliances.
• Crosstalk is the effect of one wire on the other. One
wire acts as a sending antenna and the other as the
receiving antenna.
• Impulse noise is a spike (a signal with high energy in
a very short time) that comes from power lines,
PERFORMANCE
• One important issue in networking is the performance
of the network-how good is it?

Bandwidth

• One characteristic that measures network

performance is bandwidth.
• Bandwidth in hertz is the range of frequencies
contained in a composite signal or the range of
frequencies a channel can pass.
PERFORMANCE

Bandwidth in Bits per Seconds

•The term bandwidth can also refer to the number of bits
per second that a channel, a link, or even a network can
transmit.

Bandwidth is the maximum rate of data transfer across a

given path.

For example, bandwidth of a Fast Ethernet network (or

the links in this network) is a maximum of 100 Mbps. This
means that this network can send 100 Mbps.
THROUGHPUT

• Refers to the rate of successful message delivery over

a communication channel, in a communication network.
• It is a measure of how fast we can actually send data through a
network.
For example, we may have a link with a bandwidth of 1 Mbps, but
the
devices connected to the end of the link may handle only 200 kbps.
This means that we cannot send more than 200 kbps through this
link.
THROUGHPUT - PROBLEM

1. A network with bandwidth of 10 Mbps can pass only an

average of 12,000 frames per minute with each frame carrying
an average of 10,000 bits. What is the throughput of this
network?
THROUGHPUT

Solution:
We can calculate the throughput as
Throughput= (12,000 x 10,000) / 60 = 2 Mbps
The throughput is almost one-fifth of the bandwidth in this case.
LATENCY (DELAY)

The latency or delay defines how long it takes for an entire message
to completely arrive at the destination from the time the first bit is
sent out from the source.
Latency is made of four components:
• propagation time
• transmission time
• queuing time
• processing delay.
LATENCY (DELAY)

Propagation time measures the time required for a bit to

travel from the source to the destination.

Propagation time = Distance / Propagation speed

Transmission time =Message size / Bandwidth

LATENCY (DELAY)

Queuing Time
•The third component in latency is the queuing time, the
time needed for each intermediate or end device to hold
the message before it can be processed.
•The queuing time is not a fixed factor; it changes with
the load imposed on the network.
Processing delay is the time it takes routers to process
the packet header. Processing delay is one of the key
components in network delay.
JITTER

•Jitter is a performance issue that is related to delay.

• Jitter is a problem if different packets of data encounter
different delays and the application using the data at the
receiver site is time-sensitive (audio and video data, for
example).
THANK YOU
DATA TRANSMISSION

• The transmission of binary data across a link can be

accomplished in either parallel or serial mode.
• In parallel mode, multiple bits are sent with each clock tick.
• In serial mode, 1 bit is sent with each clock tick.
PARALLEL TRANSMISSION
SERIAL TRANSMISSION

• In serial transmission one bit follows another, so we need

only one communication channel rather than ‘n’ to
transmit data between two communicating devices.
• Serial transmission can be used for long-distance
communication.
SERIAL TRANSMISSION- ASYNCHRONOUS TRANSMISSION

• In Asynchronous transmission the timing of a signal is

unimportant. Information is received and translated by agreed
upon patterns.
• Each group, is sent along the link as a unit.
• The sending system handles each group independently,
relaying it to the link whenever ready, without regard to a
timer.
SERIAL TRANSMISSION- ASYNCHRONOUS TRANSMISSION

In asynchronous transmission, we send 1 start bit (0) at the beginning and 1 or more stop
bits (Is) at the end of each byte.
SERIAL TRANSMISSION- SYNCHRONOUS TRANSMISSION

• In synchronous transmission, we send bits one after

another without start or stop bits or gaps.
• It is the responsibility of the receiver to group the bits.
 SERIAL TRANSMISSION- ASYNCHRONOUS TRANSMISSION

• In asynchronous transmission, we send 1 start bit (0) at the

beginning and 1 or more stop bits (Is) at the end of each byte.
• the transmission of each byte may then be followed by a gap of
varying duration. This gap can be represented either by an idle
channel or by a stream of additional stop bits.
 SERIAL TRANSMISSION- ISOCHRONOUS TRANSMISSION

• In real-time audio and video, in which uneven delays between

frames are not acceptable, synchronous transmission fails.
• For example, TV images are broadcasting and all,
synchronization between characters is not enough; the entire
stream of bits must be synchronized.
• The isochronous transmission guarantees that the data arrive at
a fixed rate.
SERIAL TRANSMISSION & PARALLEL TRANSMISSION
BAND UTILIZATION- MULTIPLEXING

• Bandwidth utilization is the wise use of available

bandwidth to achieve specific goals.
• Efficiency can be achieved in multiplexing by combining
several channels into one.
BAND UTILIZATION- MULTIPLEXING
FREQUENCY-DIVISION MULTIPLEXING (FDM)

• An analog technique that can be applied when the

bandwidth of a link (in hertz) is greater than the combined
bandwidths of the signals to be transmitted.
FREQUENCY-DIVISION MULTIPLEXING (FDM) - MULTIPLEXER

• Signals generated by each sending device modulate different

carrier frequencies.
• These modulated signals are then combined into a single
composite signal that can be transported by the link.
• The resulting modulated signals are then combined into a
single composite signal that is sent out over a media link that
has enough bandwidth to accommodate it.
FREQUENCY-DIVISION MULTIPLEXING (FDM) -
DEMULTIPLEXER

• The demultiplexer uses a series of filters to decompose the

multiplexed signal into its constituent component signals.
• The individual signals are then passed to a demodulator
that separates them from their carriers and passes them to
the output lines.
OTHER APPLICATIONS OF FDM

• AM and FM radio broadcasting.

• A special band from 530 to 1700 kHz is assigned to AM
radio. All radio stations need to share this band.
• FM has a wider band of 88 to 108 MHz because each
station needs a bandwidth of 200 kHz.
• Television broadcasting. Each TV channel has its own
bandwidth of 6 MHz.
• The first generation of cellular telephones also uses FDM.
Each user is assigned two 30-kHz channels, one for sending
voice and the other for receiving.
 WAVELENGTH-DIVISION MULTIPLEXING
• Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) is designed to use the
high-data-rate capability of fiber-optic cable.
• WDM is conceptually the same as FDM, except that the
multiplexing and demultiplexing involve optical signals
transmitted through fiber-optic channels.

• One application of WDM is the SONET in which multiple optical

fiber lines are multiplexed and demultiplexed.
 TIME-DIVISION MULTIPLEXING
• Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is a digital process that
allows several connections to share the high bandwidth of a
line.
• Instead of sharing a portion of the bandwidth as in FDM, time
is shared. Each connection occupies a portion of time in the
link.
SYNCHRONOUS TIME-DIVISION MULTIPLEXING
• In synchronous TDM, the data flow of each input connection is
divided into units, where each input occupies one input time
slot.
• In synchronous TDM, the data rate of the link is n times faster
and the unit duration is n times shorter.
 SYNCHRONOUS TIME-DIVISION MULTIPLEXING

• Synchronous TDM, can be visualized as two fast-rotating

switches, one on the multiplexing side and the other on the
demultiplexing side.
• The switches are synchronized and rotate at the same speed,
but in opposite directions.
• On the multiplexing side, as the switch opens in front of a
connection, that connection has the opportunity to send a unit
SYNCHRONOUS TIME-DIVISION MULTIPLEXING
• Synchronous TDM is not always efficient.
STATISTICAL TIME-DIVISION MULTIPLEXING

• In statistical time-division multiplexing, slots are dynamically

allocated to improve bandwidth efficiency.
• Only when an input line has a slot's worth of data to send it is
given a slot in the output frame.
• Here the number of slots in each frame is less than the
number of input lines.
STATISTICAL TIME-DIVISION MULTIPLEXING

In statistical TDM, a slot needs to carry data as well as the address of the destination.
THANK YOU
SWITCHING
A switched network consists of a series of interlinked nodes, called
switches.
Switches are devices capable of creating temporary connections
between two or more devices linked to the switch.
In a switched network, some of these nodes are connected to the
end systems (computers or telephones, for example) while the
others are used only for routing.

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 TAXONOMY OF SWITCHED NETWORKS
Three methods of switching :
• circuit switching
• packet switching
• message switching.

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 CIRCUIT-SWITCHED NETWORKS

• A circuit-switched network is made of a set of switches connected by physical

links, in which each link is divided into n channels.
• Switching at the physical layer in the traditional telephone network uses the
circuit-switching approach.
• The actual communication in a circuit-switched network requires three phases:
• connection setup
•data transfer
•connection teardown
•In circuit switching, the resources need to be reserved during the setup
phase; the resources remain dedicated for the entire duration of data transfer
until the teardown phase.

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DATAGRAM NETWORKS
• In a packet-switched network, there is no resource reservation;
resources are allocated on demand.
• In a datagram network, each packet is treated independently of all
others.
• Switching in the Internet is done by using the datagram approach
to packet switching at the network layer.
• In this type of network, each switch (or packet switch) has a
routing table which is based on the destination address.
• The routing tables are dynamic and are updated periodically.
• The destination addresses and the corresponding forwarding
output ports are recorded in the tables.

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DATAGRAM NETWORKS

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 VIRTUAL-CIRCUIT NETWORKS
• A virtual-circuit network is a cross between a circuit-switched
network and a datagram network.
• As in a circuit-switched network, there are setup and teardown
phases.
• Resources can be allocated during the setup phase, as in a
circuit-switched network, or on demand, as in a datagram
network.
• As in a datagram network, data are packetized and each packet
carries an address in the header.
• As in a circuit-switched network, all packets follow the same path
established during the connection.

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MESSAGE SWITCHING
In message switching, each switch stores the whole
message and forwards it to the next switch.
Although, we don't see message switching at lower layers, it
is still used in some applications like electronic mail (e-mail).

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TRANSMISSION MEDIA

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UNGUIDED TRANSMISSION MEDIA

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UNGUIDED TRANSMISSION MEDIA

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VISIBLE SPECTRUM

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INFRARED

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THANK YOU