Communication

Principles
Networking Essentials
(NETESS)
Module
Objectives
Module Title: Communication Principles
Module Objective: Explain the importance of standards and protocols in network
communications.
Topic Title Topic Objective

The Rules Describe network communication protocols.

Communicati
Describe network communication standards.
on Standards
Network
Communicati Compare the OSI and TCP/IP models.
on Models

Ethernet Explain the OSI model Layer 1 and Layer 2 functions in an Ethernet network.

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5.1 The
Rules

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The Rules
The Three Elements
The primary purpose of any network is to provide us with a method to communicate
and share information. All communication begins with a message, or information,
that must be sent from one individual or device to another.

All communication methods have three elements in common:

• The first of these elements is the message source, or sender. Message sources
are people,
or electronic devices, that need to communicate a message to other individuals
or devices.

• The second element of communication is the destination, or receiver, of the

message. The destination receives the message and interprets it.

• The third element is called a transmission medium, or channel. It provides the

pathway over
which the message can travel from source to destination.
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The Rules
Communication Protocols
Before beginning to communicate with each other, we establish rules or agreements
to govern the conversation:

• What method of communication should we use?

• What language should we use?
• Do we need to confirm that our messages are received?

These rules, or protocols, must be followed for the message to be successfully

delivered and understood:

• An identified sender and receiver

• Agreed upon method of communicating (face-to-face, telephone, letter,
photograph)
• Common language and grammar
• Speed and timing of delivery
• Confirmation or acknowledgment requirements

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The
Rules
Why Protocols
Matter
Protocol Characteristic Description
When a message is sent, it must use a specific format or structure.
Message format
Message formats depend on the type of message and the channel that is
used to deliver the message.
The rules that govern the size of the pieces communicated across the
network are very strict and can be different, depending on the channel used.
Message size
It may be necessary to break a longer message into smaller pieces in order
to ensure that the message can be delivered reliably.
Many network communication functions are dependent on timing. Timing
determines the speed at which the bits are transmitted across the network. It
Timing
also affects when an individual host can send data and the total amount of
data that can be sent in any one transmission.
Messages sent across the network are first converted into bits by the sending
Encoding host. Each bit is encoded into a pattern of sounds, light waves, or electrical
impulses. The destination host receives and decodes the signals in order to
interpret the message.
Each message transmitted on a network must include a header that contains
Encapsulation addressing information that identifies the source and destination hosts.
Encapsulation is the process of adding this information to the pieces of data
that make up the message. © 2020 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. nfidenti 6
Cisco Co al
Some messages require an acknowledgment before the next message can be
Message pattern
5.2 Communication
Standards

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Communication Standards
The Internet and Standards
A standard is a set of rules that determines how something must be done.

Networking and internet standards ensure that all devices connecting to the network
implement the same
set of rules or protocols in the same manner.

Using standards, it is possible for different types of devices to send information to each
other over the internet.

For example, the way in which an email is formatted, forwarded, and received by all
devices is done according to a standard:
• If one person sends an email via a personal computer, another person can use a
mobile phone to receive and read the email as long as the mobile phone uses the
same standards as the personal computer.

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Communication Standards
Network Standards Organizations
An internet standard is the end result of a
comprehensive cycle of discussion, problem solving, and
testing.

These different standards are developed,

published, and maintained by a variety of
organizations.

When a new standard is proposed, each stage of the

development and approval process is recorded in a
numbered Request for Comments (RFC) document.

• RFCs for internet standards are published and

managed by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF).

Other standards organizations that support the internet

are shown in the figure.
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5.3 Network
Communication Models

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Network Communication Models
The Protocol Stack
Successful communication between hosts requires interaction between a number
of protocols. These protocols are implemented in software and hardware that are
installed on each host and networking device.
The interaction between the different protocols on a device can be illustrated as a
protocol stack, as shown in the figure.
A stack illustrates the protocols as a layered hierarchy, with each higher-level protocol
depending on the services of the protocols shown in the lower levels.
The separation of functions enables each layer in the stack to operate independently of
others

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Network Communication Models
The Protocol Stack (Cont.)
The protocols in the figure are described as follows:

Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) – This protocol governs

the
way a web server and a web client interact.
HTTP defines the content and formatting of the requests
and responses that are exchanged between the client
and server. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) – This
protocol manages the individual conversations. TCP is
responsible for guaranteeing the reliable delivery of the
information and managing flow control between the end
devices.
Internet Protocol (IP) – This protocol is responsible for
delivering messages from the sender to the receiver. IP is
used by routers to forward the messages across multiple
networks.
Ethernet – This protocol is responsible for the delivery
of messages from one NIC to another NIC on the © 2020 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco
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12

same Ethernet local area network (LAN).

Network Communication Models
The TCP/IP Model
A layered model depicts the operation of the protocols occurring within each layer,
as well as the interaction with the layers above and below it.
The layered model has many benefits:
• Assists in protocol design, because protocols that operate at a specific layer have
defined information that they act upon and a defined interface to the layers above and
below.
• Fosters competition because products from different vendors can work together.
• Enables technology changes to occur at one level without affecting the other levels.
• Provides a common language to describe networking functions and capabilities.
TCP/IP Model Layer Description

Application Represents data to the user, plus encoding and dialog control.

Transport Supports communication between various devices across diverse

networks.
Internet Determines the best path through the network.

Network Access Controls the hardware devices and media that make up the network.

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Network Communication
Models
The OSI Reference
Model OSI Model Layer Description
7 - Application The application layer contains protocols used for process-to-process
communications.
6 - Presentation The presentation layer provides for common representation of
the data transferred between application layer services.
5 - Session The session layer provides services to the presentation layer to
organize its dialogue and to manage data exchange.
4 - Transport The transport layer defines services to segment, transfer, and
reassemble the data for individual communications between the
end devices.
3 - Network The network layer provides services to exchange the individual
pieces of data over the network between identified end devices.
2 - Data Link The data link layer protocols describe methods for exchanging
data frames between devices over a common media
1 - Physical The physical layer protocols describe the mechanical, electrical,
functional, and procedural means to activate, maintain, and de-
activate physical connections for a bit transmission to and from a
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Network Communication
Models
Upper and Lower Layers of the OSI
ModelGroup Layer Number Layer Name
Common Network Components Associated
with this Layer

7 Application • Network aware applications

• Email
Upper • Web browsers and servers
6 Presentation
Layer • File transfer
s • Name resolution
5 Session
• Video and voice streaming mechanisms
4 Transport • Firewall filtering lists
• IP addressing
3 Network • Routing
Lower • Network interface cards and drivers
Layers 2 Data Link • Network switching
• WAN connectivity

• Physical medium (copper twisted pair,

1 Physical fiber-optic cables, wireless transmitters)
• Hubs and repeaters

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Network Communication Models
OSI Model and TCP/IP Model
Comparison
The protocols that make up the
TCP/IP protocol suite can be
described in terms of the OSI
reference model:

• The functions that occur at the

internet layer in the TCP/IP model
are contained in the network
layer of the OSI Model.

• The transport layer functionality

is the same between both
models.

• The network access layer and

the application layer of the
TCP/IP model are further divided
in the OSI model to describe © 2020 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco
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discrete functions that must

5.4
Ethernet

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Ethernet
The Rise of Ethernet
In the early days of networking, each vendor used its own proprietary
methods of interconnecting network devices and networking protocols.

As networks became more widespread, standards were developed that defined

rules by which network equipment from different vendors operated.

Standards are beneficial to networking in many ways:

• Facilitate design
• Simplify product development
• Promote competition
• Provide consistent interconnections
• Facilitate training
• Provide more vendor choices for customers

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Ethern
et
The Rise of Ethernet
(Cont.)
There is no official local area networking standard protocol, but over time, Ethernet
has become the most common.
Ethernet protocols define how data is formatted and how it is transmitted over the
wired network.
The Ethernet standards specify protocols that operate at Layer 1 and Layer 2 of the
OSI model.

Ethernet has become a de facto standard, which means that it is the technology
used by almost all wired local area networks, as shown in the figure.

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Ethernet
Ethernet Evolution
The Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers, or IEEE, maintains the
networking standards, including Ethernet and wireless standards.

Each technology standard is assigned a number that refers to the committee that is
responsible for approving and maintaining the standard.

The committee responsible for the Ethernet standards is 802.3.

Each version of Ethernet has an associated standard. For example, 802.3 100BASE-T.
This standard notation translates as:
• 100 is the speed in Mbps
• BASE stands for baseband transmission
• T stands for the type of cable, in this case, twisted-pair cable standards.

Early versions of Ethernet were relatively slow at 10 Mbps. The latest versions of
Ethernet operate at 10 Gigabits per second and more.

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Ethernet
The Ethernet MAC Address

All communication requires a way to identify the source and destination.

The source and destination in human communication are represented by names.

When your name is called, you listen to the message and respond. Other people in the
room may hear the message, but they ignore it because it is not addressed to them.

On Ethernet networks, a similar method exists for identifying source and destination hosts.
Each host connected to an Ethernet network is assigned a physical address which serves to
identify the host on the network.

Every Ethernet network interface has a physical address assigned to it when it is

manufactured. This address is known as the Media Access Control (MAC) address.

The MAC address identifies each source and destination host on the network.

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Ethernet
Lab - Determine the MAC Address of a
Host
In this lab, you will complete the following objectives:

• Determine the MAC address of a Windows computer on an Ethernet

network using the
ipconfig /all command.

• Analyze a MAC address to determine the manufacturer.

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