Syntax- Traditional Grammar

Ms. Fatima Farooq

Lecture 10,11-2 hr
BCS 1D
Recap
● Major word classes:
○ Noun
■ Proper, common, collective, abstract, countable,
uncountable, singular, plural, concrete,
compound, gender-specific
○ Pronoun
■ Personal, reflexive,demonstrative, possessive,
relative, emphatic,indefinite, reciprocal and
interrogative
Minor word classes
preposition,
conjunction,
interjection,
auxiliary verb and
determiners
Prepositions
Prepositions
Def.- A Preposition is a word placed before a noun or a pronoun
to show in what relation the person or thing denoted by it
stands in regard to something else. [The word Preposition means
'that which is placed before'.]

Prepositions are words that show the relationship between elements in

a sentence. They can express relationships of place, time, direction, and
other abstract or logical connections.Prepositions are often used to
describe where, when, or how something happens

Prepositions are flexible words that are often central to the meaning of
a sentence, and it can be tricky to choose the right one.
Exercise
● There is a cow in the field.
● He is fond of tea.
● The cat jumped from the chair.
● Sarah is hiding in the box.
● I live near the train station.
● Put your hands on your head.
● She yelled with enthusiasm.
Prepositions-Examples
● There is a cow in the field.
○ (the word “in” shows the relation between two things - cow and field
( the Preposition joins a Noun to another Noun)
● He is fond of tea.
○ (the word “of” shows the relation between the attribute expressed by
the adjective fond and tea. (the Preposition joins a Noun to an Adjective)
● The cat jumped from the chair.
○ (the word “from” shows the relation between the action expressed by
the verb jumped and the chair. (the Preposition joins a Noun to a Verb)
● Sarah is hiding in the box.
○ (The preposition "in" shows the relationship between "hiding"
and "box.")
● I live near the train station.
○ (The preposition "near" shows the relationship between "live"
and "train station.")
● Put your hands on your head.
○ (The preposition "on" shows the relationship between "hands"
and "head.")
● She yelled with enthusiasm.
○ (The preposition "with" shows the relationship between "yelled"
and "enthusiasm.")
 List of common prepositions
According to the Cambridge English Dictionary, there are over 100 single-word
prepositions in the English language. These are some of the most common ones
– but note that many of these prepositions can be used to express more than
one type of relationship.
● "Of" refers to something belonging to or produced by someone.
● "For" refers to the recipient or purpose of something.
● "At" indicates location
● "To" refers to the recipient of something.
● "On" is used when discussing effects or impacts, something has on
someone or something.
● "In" indicates location where something happens
 Activity : Preposition Puzzle
Preposition Categories:
*Preposition Identification*

Directions: Identify and categorize the prepositions in

the following sentences: - Location:
_____________________________________________

1. The book is on the table. (__________________) - Direction:

_____________________________________________
2. She walked across the bridge.
(__________________) - Time:
_______________________________________________
3. The meeting will be held at 2 PM.
(__________________)

4. The city is located near the river.

(__________________)

5. The package was sent from New York.

(__________________)
1. The book is on the table. 4. The city is located near the river.

- Preposition: on - Preposition: near

- Category: Location - Category: Location

2. She walked across the bridge. 5. The package was sent from New York.

- Preposition: across - Preposition: from

- Category: Direction - Category: Direction

3. The meeting will be held at 2 PM. Preposition Categories:

- Preposition: at • Location: on, near

- Category: Time • Direction: across, from

• Time: at
Conjunctions
Conjunctions
Conjunctions are words that connect words, phrases, or clauses
together in a sentence. They help to link ideas, show relationships
between clauses, and provide coherence to the text. There are many
conjunctions in the English language, but some common ones include
and, or, but, because, for, if, and when. Conjunctions merely join: They
do no other work. Observe that a Preposition also joins two words but it
does more; it governs a noun or pronoun
 Subordinating Conjunctions
Subordinating conjunctions connect a dependent clause to an
independent clause. They include:
- Because (e.g., I'm tired because I didn't sleep well.)
- Since (e.g., I've been busy since morning.)

- After (e.g., I'll go for a walk after I finish my work.)

- Although (e.g., I'm tired, although I slept well.)

- If (e.g., I'll go if you go.)

- Unless (e.g., I won't go unless you go.)

- Until (e.g., I'll wait until you're ready.)

- While (e.g., I'll work while you're sleeping.)

 Coordinating Conjunctions
Coordinating conjunctions connect words, phrases, or clauses of equal importance. There are
only seven coordinating conjunctions in English, and they are "for", "and", "nor", "but", "or",
"yet", and "so", otherwise known as the FANBOYS conjunctions, a mnemonic to remember these
easily. Coordinating conjunctions (along with a comma) are the only conjunctions that can connect
two independent clauses.
-For (e.g., We listened eagerly, for the head brought us some important news)
-And (e.g., I like reading books, and I also enjoy writing.)
-Nor (e.g., We aren't arrogant, nor we wish to be)
- But (e.g., I wanted to go, but I was tired.)
- Or (e.g., Do you want coffee or tea?)
- So (e.g., I'm tired, so I'm going to bed.)
- Yet (e.g., I'm tired, yet I still need to finish this work.)
 Correlative Conjunctions
Correlative conjunctions are pairs of conjunctions that work together
to connect words or phrases of equal importance. They include:
- Both...and (e.g., I like both coffee and tea.)
- Either...or (e.g., Do you want either coffee or tea?)
- Not only...but also (e.g., I not only like reading, but also
writing.)
- Whether...or (e.g., Do you want whether coffee or tea?)
 Other Types of Conjunctions:
- Adversative conjunctions- introduce a contrast or opposition between
two ideas or statements. They show that something happens despite an
opposing idea (e.g., however, nevertheless, nonetheless, But, Still)

- Causal conjunctions-show the cause-and-effect relationship between two

statements. They link a reason or cause with a result or effect (e.g., because,
since, as, so)

- Conditional conjunctions- used to introduce a condition upon which the

result depends. These show that one action depends on another action
happening (e.g., If, Unless, Provided, As long as)

- Temporal conjunctions-indicate time relationships between events. They

are used to show when one event happens in relation to another (e.g., After,
Before, While, As soon as, When)
 Activity 1 : Conjunction Connection
Directions: Match the clauses to form complete sentences using coordinating or
subordinating conjunctions:
1. *Clause 1:* I wanted to attend the conference.
*Clause 2:* I couldn't get tickets.
(Conjunction?,Sentence?)

2. *Clause 1:* The team worked hard.

*Clause 2:* They won the championship.
(Conjunction?, Sentence?)
3. *Clause 1:* I'm tired.
*Clause 2:* I need to sleep.
(Conjunction?, Sentence?)
1. Conjunction: but

Combined Sentence: I wanted to attend the conference, but I couldn't get

tickets.

2. Conjunction: and

Combined Sentence: The team worked hard, and they won the
championship.

3. Conjunction: so

Combined Sentence: I'm tired, so I need to sleep.

 Activity 2: Conjunction Identification
Point out the Conjunctions in the 5. You will get the prize if
following sentences, and state you deserve it
whether they are Coordinating or
6. When you are called, you
Subordinating:-
must come in at
1. You will not succeed unless
7. Do not go before I come.
you work harder.
2. We arrived after you had 8. I cannot give you any
gone. money, for I have n

3. I waited till the train 9. Since you say so, I must

arrived. believe it.

4. Bread and milk is 10. He fled lest he should be

killed
You will not succeed unless you work harder. (subordinating)
We arrived after you had gone.(Subordinating)
I waited till the train arrived.(Subordinating)
Bread and milk is wholesome food.(Coordinating)
You will get the prize if you deserve it. (Subordinating)
When you are called, you must come in. (Subordinating)
Do not go before I come. (Subordinating)
I cannot give you any money, for I have none.(Coordinating)
Since you say so, I must believe it.(Subordinating)
He fled lest he should be killed.(Subordinating)
Interjection
 Interjection
Def:- An Interjection is a word which expresses some sudden feeling or
emotion.

Interjections may express-

(1) Joy; as, Hurrah! Huzza!

(2) Grief; as, alas!

(3) Surprise; as, ha! What!

(4)Approval; as, bravo!

Certain groups of words are also used to express some sudden feeling or
emotion;

as, Ah me! For shame! Well done! Good gracious!

Activity- Interjection identification
Examine the following sentences:-

Hello! What are you doing there?

Alas! He is dead.

Hurrah! We have won the game.

Ah! Have they gone?

Oh! I got such a fright.

Hush! Don't make a noise.

Activity: Interjection Creation
Directions: Complete the sentences with an appropriate interjection:

1. ______________________! I'm so excited for the party!

2. Oh ______________________, I forgot my phone!

3. ______________________! That's amazing news!

4. ______________________, that's too expensive!

5. ______________________, I'm home!

1. Wow! I'm so excited for the party!

2. Oh no! I forgot my phone!

3. Congratulations! That's amazing news!

4. Ouch! That's too expensive!

5. Finally! I'm home!

Auxiliaries
AUXILIARIES

The verbs be (am, is, was, etc), have and do, when used with
ordinary verbs to make tenses, passive forms, questions and
negatives, are called auxiliary verbs or auxiliaries. (Auxiliary
= helping)
These are help form verb phrases and express tense, mood,
or voice
 Be
The auxiliary be is used

1. In the formation of the continuous tenses; as, He is working. I was writing.

2. In the formation of the passive; as, The gate was opened.

Be followed by the infinitive is used

3. To indicate a plan, arrangement, or agreement; as, I am to see him

tomorrow. We are to be married next month.
4. To denote command; as, You are to write your name at the top of each sheet
of paper. Mother says you are to go to market at once.

Be is used in the past tense with the perfect infinitive

5. to indicate an arrangement that was made but not carried out; as, They were
to have been married last month but had to postpone the marriage until June
 Have
1. The auxiliary have is used in the formation of the perfect tenses;
as, He has worked. He has been working.
2. Have to is used with the infinitive to indicate obligation; as, I have
to be there by five o'clock. He has to move the furniture himself.
3. The past form had to is used to express obligation in the past;as, I
had to be there by five o'clock. He had to move the furniture
himself.
4. In negatives and questions, have to and had to are used with do,
does, did; as,
a. They have to go -- They don't have to go. Do they have to go?
b. He has to go. -- He doesn't have to go. Does he have to go?
c. He had to go. -- He didn't have to go. Did he have to go?
Do
The auxiliary do is used (1) To form the negative and interrogative of
the simple present and simple past tenses of ordinary verbs; as, He
dosen't work. He didn’t work. Does he work? Did he work? (2) To avoid
repetition of a previous ordinary verb; as, Do you know him? Yes, I do.
She sings well. Yes, she does. You met him, didn't you? He eats fish and
so do you. 298. Do is also used to emphasize the affirmative nature of a
statement; as, You do look pale. I told him not to go, but he did go. 299.
In the imperative, do makes a request or invitation more persuasive; as,
Do be quiet, Oh, do come! It's going to be such fun. In such cases do is
strongly stressed
Activity: Auxiliary Verb Identification

Directions: Identify the auxiliary verb in each sentence:

1. I have studied English for three years.
(__________________)
2. She will attend the meeting. (__________________)
3. They are working on the project. (__________________)
4. He has been ill since last week. (__________________)
5. We were studying for the exam. (__________________)
1. I have studied English for three years.
- Auxiliary Verb: have

2. She will attend the meeting.

- Auxiliary Verb: will

3. They are working on the project.

- Auxiliary Verb: are

4. He has been ill since last week.

- Auxiliary Verb: has

5. We were studying for the exam.

- Auxiliary Verb: were
 Recap-Modal Auxiliaries/Verbs
● The verbs can, could, may, might, will, would, shall, should, must and
ought are called modal verbs or modals.
● They are used before ordinary verbs and express meanings such as
permission, possibility, certainty and necessity.
● Need and dare can sometimes be used like modal verbs.
● Modals are often included in the group of auxiliaries. In some grammars
they are called “modal auxiliaries”.
● The modals can, could, may, might, shall, should, will, would, must and
ought are termed Defective Verbs, because some parts are wanting in
them (meaning something is missing in them). They have no -s in the
third person singular; they have no infinitive and ing forms.
Determiners
Determiners
Def: Modify nouns and indicate possession or quantity, in other words a
word that modifies, describes, or introduces a noun or indicates
their relationship with other words in a sentence. They provide
information about the noun's:

1. Quantity (e.g., some, any)

2. Identity (e.g., this, that)

3. Possession (e.g., my, your)

4. Type (e.g., a, an)

Types of Determiners
 Definite articles
Articles are sometimes classed as their own part of speech, but they are also
considered a type of determiner. The, An and A
● The definite article the is used to refer to a specific noun (i.e., one that is
unique or known to the speaker and listener).
(While the definite article the can be used with all countable and
uncountable nouns, the indefinite articles a and an can only be used with
singular countable nouns.)
 Indefinite articles
● The indefinite articles a and an are used to refer to a general or
unspecific version of a noun.
○ A is used before words that begin with a consonant sound (e.g., a
clown).
○ An is used before words that begin with a vowel sound (e.g., an
arrow).
● Indefinite articles can also be used to refer to something for the first
time. Once a noun has been introduced, the definite article should then
be used, as it refers to a previously mentioned noun.
(An elephant approached. The elephant was large and gray.)
 Demonstrative determiners
Demonstrative determiners (also called demonstrative adjectives or
simply demonstratives) are used to indicate relative positions of a
noun. The demonstrative determiners are:
● “This” (the singular “near” demonstrative)
● “These” (the plural “near” demonstrative)
● “That” (the singular “far” demonstrative)
● “Those” (the plural “far” demonstrative)
They can also be used to distinguish between more recent time (this
and these) and more distant time (that and those).
 Confusion-Demonstrative pronoun vs determiner
Demonstrative determiners are identical in form to their equivalent
demonstrative pronouns. The difference is that demonstrative pronouns stand
on their own rather than modifying a noun.

For example, in the sentence “I don’t want this,” “this” functions as a

demonstrative pronoun.

A demonstrative determiner modifies a noun, meaning that it appears

before the noun, telling you something about it.

A demonstrative pronoun replaces a noun, meaning that it stands

alone as the subject or object of the sentence.

Demonstrative determiners sit together with a noun.

Demonstrative pronouns aren’t used with a noun – they only represent a noun.
 Possessive determiners

A possessive determiner (also called a possessive adjective) is used to describe

ownership or possession. The possessive determiners are
● my,
● your,
● his,
● her,
● its,
● Our
● their.
 Confusion- Personal determiners vs pronoun
They are closely related to personal pronouns (in that they also have first-,
second-, and third-person forms) but not classed as pronouns themselves. They
differ grammatically from possessive pronouns (mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours,
and theirs), which stand alone rather than modifying nouns (e.g., “Yours is
better”).

The possessive forms of nouns typically end with an ’s (e.g., Dave’s bedroom),
Possessive determiners do not use an apostrophe.

Determiners are always followed by a noun, while pronouns stand alone.

Determiners modify nouns, whereas pronouns replace them.

Determiner: “Her book is on the table.”

Pronoun: “Hers is on the table.”

 Numbers-Cardinal and ordinal
Both cardinal numbers (one, two, three, etc.) and ordinal numbers (first,
second, third, etc.) can be used as determiners.
● Cardinal numbers: Cardinal numbers are used to indicate the quantity of
people or things. They typically follow other determiners in a sentence
(e.g., my one chance).
I’m close with my four siblings.
● Ordinal numbers: Ordinal numbers are used to specify the order of nouns
in a series. They follow other determiners in a sentence (e.g., your sixth
birthday).
I think the third man in the lineup is the thief.
 Distributive determiners
Distributive determiners (also called distributive adjectives) are used to refer
to a group or to individual people or objects within a group. The distributive
determiners are
● All,
● Each,
● Every,
● Both,
● half,
● Either,
● neither.
 Interrogative determiners
An interrogative determiner (also called an interrogative adjective) modifies a
noun or pronoun in a direct or indirect question. The interrogative
determiners are
● what,
● Which,
● whose

These words can also function as pronouns instead of determiners when used in
place of a noun (e.g., “Which do you like?”). And when they are used as determiners
outside the context of a question, they are called “relative determiners.”

(Although what and which are often used interchangeably in questions, they don’t
have the same meaning. What is usually used to ask a question when there is a
wide range of options or the options are unknown. Which is used when the number
of options is more limited or the options are known.)
 Examples and Usage:
- "I'm reading *the* book." (specific book, article)

- "*This* car is mine." (demonstrative determiner) ("This" is directly

followed by a noun ("car"), and its role is to specify which particular car is
being referred to. In this case, "This" points out which car is being
discussed.)

- "*My* phone is charging." (possessive determiner) ("My" is directly

followed by a noun ("phone"), and its function is to show ownership of that
noun.)

- "I have *some* money." (quantitative determiner)

- "*Which* shirt do you like?" (interrogative determiner)

- "*Every* student has a book." (distributive determiner)

Activity : Determiner Discovery
Directions: Complete the sentences with an appropriate determiner
(article, possessive, quantifier):

1. ______________________ book is on the bestseller list.

2. I need ______________________ coffee to stay awake.

3. ______________________ students are attending the seminar.

4. ______________________ city is known for its beauty.

1. The book is on the bestseller list.
- Determiner: The

2. I need some coffee to stay awake.

- Determiner: some

3. All students are attending the seminar.

- Determiner: All

4. This city is known for its beauty.

- Determiner: This
Useful Links for traditional Grammar
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