Fundamental of Liquid-Liquid/
Solid-Liquid Process Mixing, Piping,
and Tank Design
1
Copyright 2013
Seminar
Agenda
➢ Liquid-Liquid Mixing Fundamentals and Equipment
Selection
➢ Solid-Liquid Mixing Fundamentals and Equipment
Selection
➢ Solid-Liquid Mixing Processes
➢ Solid-Liquid Piping System Design
5
Why Mixing?
• Blending: Final Product as single phase (Miscible
Liquid- Liquid, Soluble Solid-Liquid mixing, Soluble
gas-liquid mixing)
• Dispersing: Final Product as multiple phases
(Immiscible Liquid-Liquid, Insoluble Solid-Liquid
mixing, Insoluble gas- liquid mixing)
• Heat Transfer (Single phase/Multi-phase)
• Mass Transfer (Multi-phase)
• Reaction (Single phase/Multi-phase)
3
Effects of Scale on Blend Time
•Lab scale: Reaction chemistry is the controlling factor
•Larger scale: Non-homogeneity (concentration and temperature
gradients) means chemistry may no longer be controlling.
•The result:
•unpredictable reaction selectivity
•reduced yields
•higher impurities
•changes in crystal habits, etc….
4
Effects of Scale on Mixing Time
•Longer mixing time is typical in a large scale
•Scale up objective should be product specifications and not time!!
5
Common Impeller Types
• Most common and general types in
commercial use
Straight Blade Pitched Blade Hydrofoil Propeller (Turbine)
Helical Ribbon Anchor Rushton Turbine Screw 6
Mixing: Axial Flow vs. Radial
Flow
• Axial flow: for blending, mass transfer, solids suspension
• Radial flow: for mild blending, gas dispersion
Axial Flow
Radial Flow
1
0
Flow Patterns
1
1
Agitator Selection
1
2
Mixing Process Design Parameters
•D/T typically 0.3-0.35 except for close clearance impellers (e.g. anchor)
(D = impeller diameter; T = tank diameter, H = liquid height from tank bottom)
•Single-impeller (H/T < 1) vs. multi impeller (H/T > 1.2)
•Bottom clearance
•Impeller spacing
•Baffling
1
3
Effects of Tip Speed on Design
•Tip Speed = ω.r = 2.π.N.r = π.N.D
•High for Processes needing high Shear
•Low for Processes needing low Shear
•Smaller diameter = Higher speed
•Larger diameter = Lower speed
1
4
Agitator Mechanical Design Issues
•Motor – Oversized motor rating running at low power = low energy
efficiency. High startup motor power load
•Gearbox – max rpm at VFD 50 Hz, min rpm at VFD 20-25 Hz only (to avoid
motor overheating problem)
•Seal – Stuffing box (lower P&T) vs. mechanical seal (higher P&T)
•Shaft – shaft sizing mainly dependent on rpm (torque) and fluid viscosity
•Impeller – Materials of construction, close clearance vs. center impeller
•Mounting – Bottom mounted vs. Top mounted 1
5
Mixing Regime by Impeller Reynolds number
p = Density of liquid (kg/m3 )
Re = pD N
2
D = Diameter of impeller (m)
µ N = Rotational speed (rps)
µ = Viscosity of liquid
(Pa.s)/(kg/ms)
Re < 10 ⇒ Laminar Flow
10 < Re < 10,000 ⇒ Transition
Flow
Re > 10,000 ⇒ Turbulent Flow
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Power Number
(Np)
• Laminar Re < 10
pD2 N
N P = KL Np = P Re =
Re pN 3 D 5 µ
KL is constant depend on the geometric of propeller.
P = KLµ N D 2 3 Pα µ N 2
D 3
• Turbulent in baffled tank Re > 104 Dependent on viscosity
P = NPp N D 3 5
Pα p N D 3 5
Np varies with impeller type and geometry. Independent of viscosity
1
7
Measuring Power Number (Np)
• Experimental mixing system
designed by IMPACT
•When Np is not known from
standard tank correlations or
literature.
•For accurate modeling, Np should
be measured experimentally.
• Power [W]
= Torque [N.m] x Speed [rps]
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Standard Tank - 45 Pitched Blade Turbine
• Use standard tank impeller type and dimension so that you do not have to
make Np correlations on your own.
Standard Tank
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Standard Tank - 45 Pitched Blade Turbine
Power Number Correlation
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Solid-Liquid Mixing
Unit Operations Involving Solid – Liquid Mixing
➢ Dispersion of solids
➢ Dissolution and leaching
➢ Crystallization and precipitation
➢ Adsorption, desorption, and ion exchange
➢ Solid-catalyzed reaction
➢ Suspension polymerization
The mixing operation enhances the rate of mass transfer
between the solid and liquid phases.
18
Solid-Liquid Mixing
2 Major Equipment Types for Solids Suspension :
(1)Agitated tank
(2)High shear pumps
How is designed the mixer depends on :
• The fraction of solids in the suspension
• The rheology of the suspension (mixing solids particles to liquid,
especially fine particles, can lead to strong non-Newtonian behavior)
• The time available to make the suspension
• How the particles can be wetted, and tendency of particles floating
Industries :
•Agriculture / pet food
•Food processing / baking
•Dairy industries and infant nutrition
•Pharmaceuticals
•Cosmetics
19
Solid-Liquid Mixing Equipment: (1) Agitators
Agitated mixing tank for slurry suspension & reaction
applications
• Slurry polymerization reactors, etc.
20
Solid-Liquid Mixing Equipment: (1) Agitators
Dual-shaft mixer with close-clearance impellers/scrapers for high
viscosity pigment mixing and viscosity-changing applications, etc.
21
Solid-Liquid Mixing Equipment: (2) High-Shear Pumps
❑ The solid/liquid mixer is designed for the dissolution of solids in the
applications of the food-processing, cosmetics, pharmaceutical and
chemical industries.
❑ Dissolution of sugar for the beverage production, milk reconstitution,
syrup production, brine preparation, yogurt and other milk product
premixtures and ice- cream production are some of its applications.
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Choices of Solid-Liquid Mixing Equipment
The choice of the agitator will depend on how difficult is the
mixture:
❑ Easy suspension, no modification of viscosity of the mixture :
no need of high shear, the impeller is mainly axial and can be
designed to have a good pumping.
❑ Difficult suspension / tendency to aggregate : the impeller is
radial and must supply a lot of shear to the mixture.
• Turbines
• Rotor / Stator agitators
❑ Suspension leading to a strong change in viscosity : it
can be necessary to have 2 agitators in the vessel fitting
2 purposes.
• 1 radial agitator providing shear
• 1 tangential agitator designed for viscous liquid allowing
to avoid dead areas in the tank and keeping the particles 23
from sedimenting
How to Mix Solids and
Liquids?
❑ The simplest form of liquid-solid mixer is to have an agitated
tank.
❑ The dispersion of solids in a liquid however present some very
specific challenges that must be addressed by choosing
special agitators, or even combining agitators.
24
Handbook of Industrial Mixing: Science and Practice
(Wiley)
2
8
Handbook of Industrial Mixing: Science and Practice
(Wiley)
26
Handbook of Industrial Mixing: Science and Practice
(Wiley)
27
Keys Process Questions for Solid-Liquid Mixing
➢ Minimum
agitation
speed and extent
of fillet
formation is
influenced by:
- Tank geometry
- Impeller type
- Ratio of
impeller
diameter to
tank diameter
- Location of the 28
impeller from
Keys Process Questions for Solid-Liquid Mixing
Effects of Increased Agitation:
➢ Most solid – liquid mixing operations operate above the
minimum speed for suspension. A higher agitation speed
improves the degree of
suspension and enhances mass transfer rates.
➢ The higher speed also translates into higher turbulence
as well as local and average shear rates, which for some
processes may cause undesirable particle attrition.
➢ Obviously, there is a practical economic limit on the
maximum speed of agitation.
29
Free Settling Velocities
Correlations for the free settling velocity have been derived for
spherical particles. In Newtonian fluids, the free
settling velocity, Vt, is calculated
by the expression (Perry and Green, 1984).
where gc is the gravitational constant (32.17 ft/sec2 or 9.81 m/s2)
and the drag coefficient, CD, is a function of the particle Reynolds
number, Rep, and particle shape.
30
Settling Velocities
• For Stokes’ law (laminar) regime, Rep
< 0.3
• For Newton’s law (turbulent) regime, 1000 < Rep <
350,000
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Settling Velocities
XX
X
32
Settling Velocities
33
Degrees of Solids
Suspension
(a) Partial suspension condition
(b) Complete suspension (just suspended)
(c) Uniform suspension
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Solids Suspension
XX
X
35
Minimum Speed for Just-Suspended Condition
Just Suspended Speed in Stirred Tanks
The density difference is the property with the largest influence
on Njs. Its exponent reflects the effect of the terminal settling
velocity of the particles.
With the exception of the density difference, the influence of fluid
and particle properties on Njs is not large, as indicated by the
small exponents on the kinematic viscosity, ν, the particle
diameter, dp, and the solid loading parameter, X.
The exponent on the impeller diameter, D, represents the effect
of scale. The exponent of −0.67 on D would imply a scaling rule
based on power per volume.
36
Minimum Speed for Just-Suspended Condition
Njs = minimum speed for just suspended
condition [rps] S = Zwietering constant [-]
X = solid loading % = (kg-solid/kg-liquid)
x 100 dp = solid particle size [m]
D = impeller diameter [m]
gc = gravitational constant = 9.81 m/s2
37
Effects of Impeller and Geometry
38
Importance of Baffles for Solids
Suspension
➢ Baffles are highly recommended for solids suspension
operations involving solids that are heavier than the
liquid.
➢ They convert the swirling motion into top-down or axial fluid
motion that helps to lift and suspend the solids
➢ In steel or alloy vessels, the recommended baffle design is
▪ 4 flat blade baffles
▪ Width (B) = T/12
▪ Wall clearance = T/72 minimum
➢ In glass-lined equipment, the recommended minimum 2 baffles
are either fin or beaver- tail type (though less effective than
the standard four flat blade baffles).
39
Solids distribution and CFD flow fields -
1994
t
f
1
. ,
.,1
ßaŁŁer A., Føsano J.B., Myers K.J. í1994) Ejects of Flow Pattern or the Solids Distribution iø n
Shrred TesIc 8th European Confermce on Nlixing, September 21-Ł3, 1994, Cambridge, U.K.
IChemE Symposium Series Ño. 136, ISBN 0 8f295 329 1, page 1-8.
Baffle Effects
41
Baffle Effects
42
Process Scale-Up: Lab & Pilot Plant
Experiments
Simple laboratory or pilot plant experiments carried out in
transparent vessels, such as glassware often provides great insight
and understanding of the mixing challenges and opportunities.
The tests should provide information including:
➢ The desired level of suspension required by the process
➢ The properties of the solids and liquids required to estimate the
necessary solid – liquid mixing parameters, including:
➢ Settling velocity, Vt
➢ Minimum speed for suspension, Njs
➢ Solid – liquid mass transfer coefficient, kSL
➢ Materials of construction 43
Process Scale-Up Testing Equipment
For LAMINAR mixing, common scale-up by matching TIP SPEED.
For TURBULENT mixing, common scale-up by matching (POWER /
VOLUME).
44
Process Scale-Up
In any laboratory or pilot plant tests, the first thing to vary is the
impeller speed. This changes pumping capacity, blend time, and
shear rates.
➢ On-bottom motion or partial suspension is rarely a useful desired
mixing result except, perhaps, for the dissolution of very soluble
solids.
➢ Complete suspension is the minimum desired mixing goal for most
solid – liquid mixing operations involving settling solids.
➢ Uniform suspension is required for crystallization, solid-catalyzed
reactions, and suspension polymerization where high local concentrations
may lead to poor yields of the desired product. Also, as practical as
possible, crystallization slurries must be fed to a centrifuge at a
uniform solids concentration for the proper cake buildup required for
effective filtration and washing of the solid cake.
45
Key Points for Scale-Up
46
Slurry or Solid-Liquid Mixture Types
• Settling (also known as “heterogeneous”)
– Matrix material
– Head vs. flow rate is U shaped
• Non-settling (also known as “homogeneous”)
– Fine clays (solids less than 80 microns)
– Head vs. flow rate shows a laminar and turbulent flow
region
– In theory, pipeline velocity can be low, but larger
particles may settle if velocity is too low
47
Slurry Concentration
• Slurry concentration is usually defined in one of three ways:
1. Cv – Concentration by volume
2. Cw – Concentration by weight
3. Sm – Mean specific gravity of the slurry
• Pump selection by engineers is usually done using Sm,
while mining engineers use Cw.
• Formulas available to convert from one concentration
definition to another.
48
Slurry Concentration Formulas
• XXX
49
Consideration for Slurry pipeline Design
• Design requirements:
– Solids transport rate
– Concentration, fixed or varied (affects
cost)
– Pipeline diameter
– Slurry Type, settling or non-settling
• Slurry specifics:
– Size
– Type
– Concentration
Page 50
How Is Slurry Pipeline Different?
• Pipelines transporting liquids such as oil and water can be operated
at any velocity up to their design limits. In most slurry applications,
a certain minimum velocity needs to be maintained, to keep solids
from settling out in horizontal sections of the pipe. The velocity
below which particles tend to settle out and form a deposit in the
pipe is called the “deposition velocity.”
• The pipe diameter should be selected such that the velocity in the
pipeline is maintained above the deposition velocity over the
operating range of flow rates.
• The operating flow rate range is determined by the expected range
of solids throughput and slurry concentration. Solids throughput is
defined as the weight of solids to be transported per unit time. It is
normally expressed in tons per hour (tons/h).
• The deposition velocity and friction loss in a given size pipe at a given
concentration depend on the slurry flow behavior. The selection of
pipe material, valves, fittings, and pumps depends upon the velocity
of flow, abrasiveness of the slurry, and pumping pressures. Page 51
Slurry Rheology
• For particles smaller than 35 microns at relatively high concentrations,
the slurry flow properties are governed by its rheology.
• Slurries that do not contain particles smaller than 35 microns or that are
at low concentrations exhibit heterogeneous flow behavior.
Heterogeneous flow properties are not governed by slurry rheology.
• Rheology is the relationship between the shear stress and the
corresponding rate of shear. In the case of pure liquids, the shear
stress is directly proportional to the rate of shear in laminar flow.
The proportionality constant is called the viscosity of the liquid.
Newtonian.
• Liquids containing long-chain polymers and finely ground solids
exhibit a nonlinear relationship between shear stress and the rate of
shear under laminar- flow conditions. Non-Newtonian.
• Depending upon the size distribution of solids, slurry
concentration, and interaction between solids and liquid, the slurry
may have Newtonian or Non- Newtonian flow properties.
Page 52
Slurry Rheology
• Slurries containing non-flocculated particles are generally
Newtonian. Non- Newtonian behavior is generally encountered with
flocculated suspensions.
• Some slurries require a certain minimum stress before flow starts. For
example, fresh concrete does not flow over a chute until a
certain slope is exceeded. The slurry is said to possess a yield stress
which must be exceeded to initiate flow.
• The rheology of a Newtonian fluid is expressed by its viscosity, which
is the ratio of shear stress to the corresponding rate of shear. Two or
more parameters are needed to describe the rheological properties of
a Non-Newtonian liquid.
• Bingham plastic, pseudoplastic, and yield pseudoplastic models are
generally used to describe the flow behavior of slurries. The
relationships between the shear stress and shear rate for these
rheological models are as follows:
Page 53
Slurry Rheology
Page 54
Slurry Pipeline Head Loss
Page 55
Slurry Friction Factor: Newtonian Slurries
Page 56
Slurry Friction Factor: Non-Newtonian
Slurries
Page 57
Estimate of Slurry Rheology
• Correlations between slurry concentration and rheology of the
slurry for Newtonian and Bingham plastic slurries may be
used for preliminary estimates when rheology test results are
not available.
• The viscosity of a slurry depends on the volume fraction of
solids in slurry.
• The volume fraction of solids is determined by using
Page 58
Slurry Flow Behavior
• Flow of slurry in pipes depends upon the interaction between the
solids and liquid as well as between the slurry and the pipe.
• Depending on the flow velocity, pipe diameter, solids size distribution,
fluid properties, and solids characteristics, four different flow conditions
can be encountered in a horizontal or nearly horizontal pipeline.
• These are
1) Homogeneous regime
2) Heterogeneous regime
3) Saltation regime
4) Stationary bed regime
Page 59
Slurry Flow Behavior
High Low
velocity velocity
Page 60
Slurry Flow Behavior
• XXX
Page 61
Slurry Flow System Design Correlations
• The first large-scale experimental program on the flow of slurries
through pipes was reported by “Durand.”
• The correlations proposed by Durand and his coworkers serve as a
basis for the present-day design methods.
• Design of a slurry piping system involves
●Selection of pipe diameter
●Estimate of friction loss and pumping requirements
●Selection of pipe material, valves, and fittings
●Selection of pumps
●Selection of instruments and control system for safe and reliable
operation
Page 62
Deposition Velocity Estimation by DURAND
• The velocity below which bed deposits form is called the deposition
velocity. Operating the pipeline at or below the deposition velocity
for prolonged time could result in a pipeline blockage. The minimum
operating velocity in a slurry pipeline should be kept greater than
the deposition velocity, to prevent pipeline blockages.
• A number of empirical correlations have been proposed for
estimating the deposition velocity. For uniform-size particles, the
Durand correlation, given as follows, is widely used:
• The value of FL in Durand’s correlation can be obtained from Fig.
C11.10.
D = pipe ID, s = slurry
specific gravity
• Zandi and Govatos, Wasp et al. and Graf et al. have Page 63
proposed minor modifications of Durand’s correlation based
on additional data.
Deposition Velocity Estimation:
OROSKAR-TURIAN
• Most industrial applications involve nonuniform-size particles. Pilot plant test
results or prior experience with similar material is generally used for
estimating deposition velocity for nonuniform-size particles.
• Oroskar and Turian have developed a semiempirical correlation which can
be used for nonuniform-size particles. Their correlation is as follows:
• where
VD = deposition velocity, ft/s (m/s)
z = function of V/VD , as shown in Fig.
C11.11 d = mean diameter of particles,
ft (m)
w = settling velocity of solid particle in
slurry, ft/s (m/s)
m = hindered settling velocity exponent as a function of particle Reynolds
number, shown in Fig. C11.12 Page 64
wo = settling velocity of solid particle in clear water of infinite extent, ft/s (m/s)
= viscosity of water, lbf.s/ft2 (Pa.s)
Deposition Velocity
• XXX
Page 65
Function z for Deposition Velocity
Estimation
•
XXX
Page
69
DURIAN Coefficient Correlation: FL
• XX
Page 67
Hindered Settling Velocity Exponent: m
• XX
Page 68
Ex.: Deposition Velocity Estimation
• Example C11.8. Estimate the deposition velocity for a sand-water slurry
in a 12 inch (0.3048-m) ID pipeline. The sand particle diameter is 0.2
mm, and its specific gravity is 2.65. The slurry concentration is 31.9
percent solids.
• Solution: Using Eq. (C11.1), we find the slurry density, m 77.9
1b/ft3 (1248 kg/m3).
• Using Eq. (C11.6), we find the volume fraction of solids Cv 0.15. From Fig.
C11.10, we find the value of FL equal to 1.3 based on a particle diameter
equal to 0.2 mm and Cv equal to 0.15.
• In Eq. (C11.30) we substitute the following values to compute the
deposition velocity VD:
Page 69
Corrosion-Erosion Control
• In a slurry pipeline, metal loss is expected to be a result of corrosion with
possible erosion of the corrosion products taking place simultaneously.
Under some conditions, mechanical abrasion will play a part in producing
the metal loss.
• Erosive wear (abrasive) is governed by the size, shape, and angularity of the
solids, slurry concentration, and velocity of flow. In a slurry pipeline, these
parameters are interdependent to some extent. For example, use of large
solids requires an increase in minimum transportation velocity. It has been
found that above some critical velocity, the abrasive wear increases as the
cube of slurry velocity.
• Wear also increases as the size of the solid particles increases. Thus, by
reducing the size of the solids, the abrasive wear can be substantially
reduced due to the combination of lower required velocity and reduction in
wear due to smaller particle size. The effect of slurry concentration on the
abrasive wear is more complicated.
• From experience, it has been found that the metal loss due to abrasion is
insignificant if the velocity of flow is less than about 10 ft/s (3 m/s). For long-
distance slurry pipelines, velocities in the range of 4 to 6 ft/s (1.2 to 1.8
m/s) result in an optimum design from the standpoint of economics. Thus,
when possible, a particle size should be selected so that the slurry is
nearly homogeneously suspended at velocities of 4 to 6 ft/s (1.2 to 1.8
m/s). Page 70
Instrumentation for Slurry Pipelines
• Pressure
– Suction pressure is controlled to prevent cavitation.
– Discharge pressure is controlled not to exceed the maximum
allowable pressure for the pump unit or the pipeline system.
– Bourdon-type PG with isolation diaphragm generally used.
• Density
– The pumping head requirement varies with the changes in slurry
density. If the slurry density is not controlled within the
pipeline design limits, it can be overpressurized or flow velocity
could drop below the deposition velocity.
– Slurry density is normally measured by radiation gages. Density
meters may be needed at each pump station in a multiple-station
system. The density meters are normally installed on the suction
side of a pump station. Density is controlled by adding dilution
water to high-density slurry. If the density is too low, the slurry can
be returned to the preparation plant for concentrating. Page 71
Instrumentation for Slurry Pipelines & Tanks
• Flow Rate.
– In-line flow measuring devices such as orifice plates and pitot
tubes are not applicable due to abrasiveness.
– For primary slurry flow metering, magnetic flowmeters are
considered the best choice.
– Ultrasonic flowmeters sometimes are used in applications
including oil slurries where magnetic flowmeters are
unsuitable.
• Slurry Tank Level Measurement:
1) Conductance probes for level alarms and a pressure sensor mounted
in the wall of the tank are used to obtain a rough indication of level of
slurry in the tank. This procedure has proved satisfactory.
2) Level measurement with a pressure sensor is affected by changes in
slurry density. A way to compensate for this effect is available but not
commonly used.
3) Sonic devices provide direct measurement of tank level.
Page 72
Special Valves Required for Abrasive Slurry
Systems
• Full-bore valves are
needed.!!
Page 73
