LEARNING

Learning is defined as a relatively

permanent change in behavior that occurs
as a result of experience
 Types of Learning

Non Associative Associative

Learning Learning
In non-associative learning, Associative learning is a
the individual's type of learning where
behavior changes due an individual learns to
to repeated exposure to form a connection or
one type of stimulus. association between two
There is no pairing of stimuli, or between a
two events (like in behavior and a
associative learning), consequence.
 Non Associative Learning

Habituation happens when a Sensitization is the opposite of

person or animal becomes less habituation. It happens when a
responsive to a stimulus after person or animal becomes more
being exposed to it repeatedly. responsive to stimuli after being
Example: Imagine you live near a exposed to an especially strong or
busy road. When you first move in, painful stimulus.
the sound of traffic might be Example: Suppose you touch a
annoying or distracting. But over hot stove and burn your hand.
time, as you hear the traffic noise After this painful experience,
every day, you stop noticing it as you might become more
sensitive to heat. Even mild
much and you react less to the
warmth might make you react
noise. This is habituation—your
strongly, pulling your hand
response to the noise diminishes away quickly. This heightened
with repeated exposure. response to any future heat is
sensitization
 Associative Learning

Classical Operant
Conditioning Conditioning
 Classical Conditioning
● Classical conditioning, is learning
through association. It involves
connecting a neutral stimulus (a
stimulus that at first elicits no
response) with a naturally occurring
reflex
● In a famous experiment, Ivan Pavlov
rang a bell each time he gave a dog
food. The dog would normally salivate
when the food reached its mouth.
After Pavlov repeated the procedure
several times, the dog would salivate
when it heard the ring, even if no food
appeared. It had been conditioned
to associate the sound with the food.
 Operant Conditioning-
B.F.Skinner
 Operant conditioning, is a method of learning where the
consequences of a response determine the probability of it being
repeated.
 Through operant conditioning behavior which is reinforced
(rewarded) will likely be repeated, and behavior which is
punished will occur less frequently
 Skinner used a hungry rat in a Skinner box to show how positive
reinforcement works. The box contained a lever on the side, and
as the rat moved about the box, it would accidentally knock the
lever. Immediately after it did so, a food pellet would drop into a
container next to the lever. The consequence of receiving food
every time the rat hit the lever ensured that the animal
repeated the action again and again.
 Continued..
 Reinforcement refers to the process whereby the delivery of a stimulus
increases the probability of a behavior.
 Reinforcement can be done by giving a pleasant stimulus (positive
reinforcement) or
 by the removal of an aversive stimulus (negative reinforcement).
 In other words: there may be either a positive or a negative contingency
between the behavior and reinforcement.
 A positive reinforcement means that something is given: for example, bar
pressing is followed by food.
 A negative reinforcement means that something is taken away: for
example, bar pressing terminates or prevents shock
 Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement: it decreases the probability of
a behavior
 It consists of the delivery of an aversive stimulus (positive punishment, or
 The removal of a pleasant stimulus (negative punishment).
 Again, note that there may be either a positive contingency between the
behavior and punishment (bar pressing is followed by shock) or a negative
contingency (bar pressing terminates food delivery).
Observational learning/social
learning theory- Albert
Bandura
Social learning theory suggests that social behavior is learned by
observing and imitating the behavior of others
Observational learning (also called Vicarious learning/Modelling)
is a major component of Bandura's social learning theory. He
also emphasized that four conditions were necessary in any form
of observing and modeling behavior:
 Attention
 Retention
 Reproduction
 Motivation.
The learner must be able to (1) pay attention to the model’s
behavior and observe its consequences, (2) remember what was
observed, (3) be able to reproduce the behavior, and (4) be
motivated to do so
 Bobo Doll Experiment
● The Bobo doll experiment was executed via a team of
researchers.
● In this study, one group of children was
shown adult models behaving aggressively
towards a Bobo doll. Another group of
children was exposed to adult models
behaving non-aggressively.
● Afterwards, the children were led into a
room in which they could play with many
different toys.
● The first group of children was shown to
display more aggressive behavior towards
the Bobo doll than the second group of
children.
● Bandura later showed that the effects are
very similar if the children are exposed to
aggressive behavior by models presented in
film-sequences on a TV screen because for
observational learning, the status of the
model or observed individual (models who
are similar or high in status will be more
Social Cognitive Theory
 Evolved from social learning theory
 Bandura expanded SLT to include a stronger emphasis on
cognitive processes
 It highlights the importance of internal cognitive
processes, such as thoughts, beliefs, and especially self-
efficacy.
 Self-efficacy is a concept developed by Albert Bandura
within his Social Cognitive Theory, and it refers to an
individual's belief in their ability to successfully perform
and complete tasks or achieve goals. Bandura believed
that self-efficacy plays a central role in how people
approach challenges, persist in difficult tasks, and
ultimately succeed or fail in their efforts. Self-efficacy is
about how confident a person feels in their ability to
perform specific tasks or behaviors.
Reciprocal
Determinis
m Reciprocal determinism refers to the idea that a
person's behavior, their personal factors (like
thoughts, beliefs, and emotions), and the
environment all interact with and influence each
other in a two-way, or reciprocal, manner.
 HOW IT WORKS?
Behavior influences the environment: The way you act can affect the
people around you and the situation you’re in. For example, if you're friendly,
others might respond positively to you, creating a welcoming environment.
The environment influences behavior: The surroundings or social context
you are in can shape how you act. For example, you may behave more formally
in a professional setting compared to a casual one.
Personal factors influence behavior: Your beliefs, thoughts, and emotions
shape how you act. For instance, if you believe you are capable of success, you
are more likely to take on challenges confidently.
Behavior influences personal factors: The outcomes of your actions can
affect your thoughts and emotions. If you succeed at a task, it may boost your
confidence, while failure might lead to self-doubt.
The environment influences personal factors: Your environment can
affect your mindset, thoughts, or emotional state. For example, a supportive
environment can make you feel more confident, while a hostile one can cause
stress or anxiety.
Personal factors influence the environment: Your beliefs, attitudes, and
personality traits can shape the environment around you. For example, a
positive, outgoing person might create a more social and interactive
 Learned Helplessness-Martin
Seligman
 Martin Seligman's theory of learned helplessness emerged from his experiments on
animals.
 It describes a condition in which individuals who have been subjected to repeated
painful or unpleasant experiences, without the ability to escape or avoid them,
eventually stop trying to change their situation—even when escape becomes
possible.
 Seligman conducted an experiment on dogs where they were placed in a situation
where they received mild electric shocks. In one group, the dogs could avoid the
shocks by moving to another area, while in another group, the dogs had no control
over avoiding the shocks. Over time, the dogs who couldn't avoid the shocks gave up
trying to escape, even when they were later placed in a situation where escape was
possible.