Chapter 3

3 Review of Protection of DC and AC Systems

 The nature of fault in DC Systems
As indicated in Chapter 1, the absence of zero crossings in DC systems as well as the
low inductance compared to AC systems is a major issue with the development of
the DC grid. In AC networks, the current is periodically driven through zero and
current zero is the ideal instant to interrupt the fault current. In AC systems, the fault
clearance time is normally 60 – 80ms, with 40ms for circuit breaker. However to
interrupt fault in DC system, the circuit breaker must perform many times faster
than in AC systems, typically 8 times faster than in AC systems. This implies that fault
current interruption in DC networks must be done very precisely and much more
rapidly.
Fault current interruption in DC Systems
Generally, with AC systems there is the natural passage of current through zero at
each half cycle. This corresponds to the extinguishing of the arc during the circuit
opening. However, with DC there is not such natural zero (Figure 3.1 and Table 3.1)
and therefore, to guarantee arc extinction, the current must decrease to null,
thereby forcing the current passage through zero [48]. As shown in Figure 3.1a,
following the occurrence of the fault at 0.2sec, the magnitude of the current
increases and then decreases with time until the fault is cleared by the use of an
AC breaker after a further 0.2sec. However, in the case of DC system as shown in
Figure 3.1b, the fault current rises exponentially and continue to rise without
decay
• Generally, DC fault current interruption technique has been employed
in developing low and medium voltage DC circuit breakers such as
thos e used in DC traction system (Figure 3.2). However, a means of
dissipating the huge amount of energy involved remains a major
concern in adapting this principle for HVDC breakers. This is largely
due to the large fault current in HVDC systems resulting from their
large power ratings. However, as previously mentioned, with the
recent advancements made in the development of HVDC breakers,
this research focuses on DC line fault detection algorithms for
application to DC grids.
ac fault dc fault

Natural zero No Natural zero

Magnitude decay over time Magnitude quickly raises over time

Typically, higher reactance Typically, lower reactance

The applications of circuit-breakers in DC circuits for electric traction in general
can be summarized as
▪ Protection and operation of both overhead and rail contact lines .
▪ Protection of air compressors on board underground and train cars
▪ Protection of distribution plants for services and signalling systems
▪ Protection of D.C supply sources, such as renewable sources
▪ Protection and operation of D.C motors.

As stated earlier, due to the large current resulting from the voltage they
handle (typically 750V for DC traction and 200kV for HVDC systems) and
subsequently huge amount of energy dissipation in HVDC systems, the
requirements and concept of HVDC breaker is different from that of low voltage
DC breaker.
Protection algorithms for low
voltage DC systems
• In general, DC circuit breakers will rely on trip signals from relays in
order to operate. These relays rely on measured electrical quantities
(voltages and currents) on the system that indicates whether a fault
has occurred. Some existing protection algorithms used for DC
traction applications include:
 3.3.1 Direct – acting (or instantaneous)
overcurrent protection
• This provides protection against overloads as well as high speed
operation during high current faults. However, the major draw-back of
this technique is that it cannot discriminate between normal load
conditions and low level or remote faults. For example, the train
starting current can be significantly larger than the fault current
resulting from a long distance remote fault. (Figure 3.4). This can
result in faulty relay discrimination, hence leading to spurious trips.
However, this situation is rare in practice, but measures must be taken
should they occur,
3.3.2 Rate of rise (di/dt) protection

• This technique is widely used in DC traction system as it measures the initial

increase in the current thus detecting the presence of fault before reaching
damaging levels. A DC line fault is detected by comparing the incremental DC
current (Δi) at the relay terminal with a predetermined threshold for a pre-set
time duration, (Δv).
3.3.3 Impedance protection Generally, the
impedance of a track section as seen from the relay location is the ratio of the
track voltage to the current flowing in the relay. The presence of a fault along
the track will result in a decrease in the line impedance. If the calculated
impedance is less than the setting impedance, a trip signal is initiated. This
technique is extensively used by the Network Rail in the UK[50]
3.3.4 Under voltage protection
• This technique monitors a reduced track voltage during fault or during
normal load conditions at the substations and along the track. A time
delay element is also incorporated to provide discrimination between
fault and normal load conditions, thus rendering it inadequate for
close – up faults. Furthermore, it cannot provide directional
discrimination.

3.3.5 Multi-function protection

Generally, modern low voltage DC relays normally incorporates two or
more principles for fault identification and detection , for example the
DC relay
• Generally, whether the protection algorithms developed for DC traction
systems would be suitable for the protection of DC grids depend on grid
configurations and the minimum time required to clear the fault. This
includes the nature of the transmission medium (whether a transmission
line or a cable), the length of the transmission medium as well as the
converter topologies. Furthermore, for DC grids, the effect of cable
capacitances as well as the long length of the transmission systems impact
on the resulting fault current profile. The frequency dependency of the
distributed line parameters as well as travelling wave effects is another
major issue. Also, the time required to clear the fault in DC grids (ideally
1ms including the time delays in the hardware) would also impose
limitations in adopting the protection techniques. However, the di/dt
protection technique was further investigated to ascertain its suitability for
DC grid protection. The findings are presented in Chapter 5. In the same
way, the protection algorithms developed for HVAC system is also
investigated and details of the findings are presented hereunder.
3.4 Protection algorithms for
HVAC systems
• The protection techniques for HVAC system available in literature fall
under one or a combination of two or more of the following.
• Impedance based or Distance Protection Technique
• Differential protection
• Overcurrent Protection
• Boundary Protection
• Travelling wave based protection techniques
 3.4.1 Impedance-based or distance protection technique

• Impedance or distance based protection techniques have been widely used in

AC systems. The basic principle is that the impedance seen by a relay reduces

as apparent impedance 𝑍𝑝. The idea is to estimate the impedance between

suddenly during faults. The impedance measured during a fault is referred to

the fault point and the relay by measuring the loop voltage and the current

to the line length, the distance to the fault, 𝑙𝑓 can be estimated. As shown in
formed following the occurrence of a fault. Since impedance is proportional

measured current to get the apparent impedance, 𝑍𝑝 which is the

Figure 3.7, the voltage measured at the relaying point is divided by the

value is compared with a value referred to as reach point impedance, 𝑍𝑟 to

calculated impedance at any instant in time following fault inception. This

determine whether a fault has occurred along the line

 If 𝑍𝑝 is less than 𝑍𝑟 a fault is detected and the circuit breaker will receive a trip signal to operate.
Thus, When 𝑍𝑝 < 𝑍𝑟 𝑍𝑝 = Fault impedance. 𝑍𝑟 = Reach or setting point impedance
Zr is selected after considering all system conditions such as switching and overload condition
to avoid nuisance trips. A very good advantage of this technique is that it only operates for faults
occurring between the relaying point and the selected reach point, thus making it to be inherently
directional. In this way, it can distinguish between internal and external faults. Also, it does not rely on
information from remote end terminal and as such no communication channel is required - hence

measured at the local terminal. Considering Figure 3.8, the arbitrary faults 𝐹𝑖1, 𝐹𝑖2 and 𝐹𝑖3 are
making it very fast in operation. The only information required are the voltage and current signals

R, 𝐹𝑒1, 𝐹𝑒2 are external faults. As per distance protection, the corresponding fault distances are
internal faults and hence falls within the protection zone of the relay, R. However, with respect to relay

𝑙𝑓1, 𝑙𝑓2 and 𝑙𝑓3 respectively.

 As the impedance is a complex number, directional protection technique

reverse faults (𝐹𝑒1 as shown) while the concept of zoning is used to provide
utilising the reactive component is usually used to provide discrimination for

discrimination for forward external faults (𝐹𝑒2 as shown). Due to

inaccuracies in the measurements resulting from CT errors, measurement
errors, inaccuracies of the line impedance, a protection reach setting of
100% of the line length is not practically possible with distance protection.
To avoid nuisance tripping of the distance relay, the protection line is divided
into different zones of protection and with each zone having its own settings
(Figure 3.9).
 For example, zone 1 has a reach setting of up to 80% - 85% of the protected line resulting in a security
margin typically 15 – 20% from the remote end of the line[53][54] is selected as zone 1 or under-
reaching stage. In this way, there is no risk of zone 1 protection overreaching the protected line. The
remainder of the line (15% – 20%) and up to a minimum of 120% of the line is covered by zone 2 (over-
reaching stage). However, in many applications zone reaches are set to cover the entire protected line
section +50% of the shortest adjacent line [54] In order to ensure selectivity and mal-operation, zone 2
is time – delayed or graded (typically 0.4 - 0.5s for electromechanical relays and 0.25 - 0.3s for analogue
static or numerical relays) relative to the protection of the adjacent line [53] In most applications, a third
zone may be provided to protect the entire length of the neighbouring lines. Zone 3 covers the first and
second line and up to 20 - 25% of neighbouring (third) line. Zone 3 setting can also provide back-up
protection for the second line. This is achieved by reversing its setting to cover up to 20% of the second
line.
The advantages of the distance
protection include the following
▪ It is comparatively simple to apply.
▪ It is fast in operation for faults located along the protected
circuit.
▪ It can provide both primary and remote back up protection in a
single scheme
▪ When applied with signalling channel, it can easily be adapted
to create a unit protection scheme.
▪ Insensitive to source impedance variations
3.4.2 Differential Protection

• Differential protection is based on Kirchhoff’s current laws, and hence

during normal operating conditions, all current into a network node
shall add up to zero. For example, as shown in Figure 3.10, a fault can
therefore be detected by comparing the magnitude and phase of the
two currents.
3.4.3 Overcurrent Protection

• An overcurrent protection scheme detects a fault by monitoring the

current flowing in a system and comparing it with a predefined
setting. They are usually used for the protection of radial networks
but with suitable appropriate coordination, they can be applied to
parallel networks. Among the various possible methods used to
achieve the correct relay co-ordination are those using either time or
overcurrent, or a combination of both. The basic idea is to ensure that
each relay isolates only the faulty section of the power system
network, without service interruption on the healthy sections of the
transmission system
3.4.4 Boundary Protection

• A transmission line protection based on transient components without

communication links can be referred to as boundary protection[57]. In this
type of protection scheme, the different time-frequency characteristics of
the fault generated transient components between internal and external
faults are determined by analysing the frequency response of reflection and
refraction coefficients at the boundary[57]. The operating principle is based
on the fact that a fault on a transmission line will generate wideband
current signals which propagate outward from the point of faults towards
the busbar[58][59]. At discontinuities, a portion is reflected and another
portion refracted. However, a substantial amount of the transient current
signals, in particular, those in the high frequency range will be shunted by
the capacitance posed by the discontinuities.
 3.4.5 Travelling Wave Protection
Philosophy
• Travelling wave based protection (TWBP) technique provides the fastest means of fault
detection in power systems since it utilises the higher frequency content of the fault
generated components to detect the occurrence of a fault. The basic principle is to detect
the occurrence of the high frequency components at the relay terminals; and use these
signatures to detect the presence of a fault on the line under consideration. Generally, the
occurrence of a fault on a transmission line will result in voltage collapse at the point of faults
and initiate a forward and backward travelling wave. These travelling waves are considered
as equivalent to superimposing a voltage at the point of fault, whose magnitude is equal but
opposite to the pre-fault steady state voltage[62]. The superimposed components contain
sufficient information that can be used for high speed fault identification and protection.
These include fault type, fault location and fault direction[63], [64]. The major issue with
travelling wave based protection philosophy as used in an AC system is the occurrence of
faults at or close to zero crossing of the supply voltage, thus making it very difficult to detect
the fault. However, this is not the case in DC systems. Other short comings of the travelling
wave based techniques include: • variation
in surge impedance at high frequencies, • requirement of high sampling rate, (up
to 1MHz in some cases) • problems of multiple reflections, •
interference signals and noise
3.5 Methods of DC line Protection in
HVDC systems
• • The current derivative technique
• The voltage derivative
• The polarity identification technique

• DC Voltage Level (∆𝑽) Protection

• The differential protection technique

•DC Current Level (∆𝑰) Protection

•Travelling wave based protection
• Boundary protection
3.5.1 The current derivative (di/dt)
based Protection technique
• The current derivative or 𝑑𝑖/𝑑𝑡 based DC line protection technique uses
the initial rate of rise of the fault current to determine whether a fault
has occurred on a particular line under consideration line. As explained
in section 3.3, it has been widely used and established for DC traction

local relay, the calculated 𝑑𝑖/𝑑𝑡 could be positive (for a forward

systems. Also, depending on the direction of fault with respect to the

directional fault) or negative (for a reverse directional fault). For

Figure 3.15, the 𝑑𝑖/𝑑𝑡 with respect to the relay is positive for fault F1
example, considering a section of a transmission network shown in

(forward fault) and negative for fault F2 (reverse fault). Generally,

whether a fault is forward or reverse is a matter of convention,
depending on the relay reference direction of current.
3.5.2 DC Voltage Derivative (𝒅𝒗/𝒅𝒕)
Protection
• This is like the di/dt and also estimated by the method of sampling. In the

rate of change 𝑑𝑣/𝑑𝑡 is determined. A fault is detected when the

voltage derivative method, the DC voltage is continuously sampled and the

calculated dv/dt exceeds a pre-determined threshold. This technique is

widely used for the protection of two terminal HVDC system[65]. An
advantage of this technique is that it is fast in operation. However, its
disadvantage is that the sensitivity depends on the fault loop impedance as
well as fault distance. The larger the fault loop impedance/distance, the
more the magnitude of the measured voltage is damped hence this results
in difficulties in detecting faults under these scenarios. However, some
proposals for DC grid protection technique utilising voltage derivative has
been proposed in [69], [70].
3.5.3 Polarity Identification Technique

• The polarity of the transient fault generated signals recorded at the

relay terminal following fault inception can also be used to provide
directional discrimination between internal and external faults[71].
For an internal fault, the polarity of the transient voltage and current
at both terminals of the protected line are of opposite sign.
The basic principle is explained hereunder. As shown in Figure 3.17, and assuming a fault,
F occurring on the line as shown. The application of a fictitious voltage source at the fault
point causes voltage and current travelling waves moving from the fault point F towards
the terminals
 3.5.4 Differential Protection
• This involves measuring the current and/or voltage at both ends of the relaying terminals and
comparing the difference with a pre-determined threshold to determine whether or not a fault
has occurred on the DC line. The differences between the two-measured current sis referred to as
differential quantity. The information recorded at both terminals is relayed through
communication channel (Figure 3.18), hence the integrity (speed and reliability) of the
communication channel is a major factor in the accuracy and reliability of this technique.
Furthermore, the sensitivity decreases with increase in line length due to charging and discharging
current resulting from voltage variations [74]. As shown in Figure 3.18, a fault occurring along
terminal AB is detected when the difference between the measured current at the two converter
station exceeds a predetermined value. The direction of current shown is arbitrary. Generally,
these differences can either be positive or negative depending on the location of the fault. Current
differential protection technique used in LCC HVDC system has been reported in [75]. A differential
protection scheme utilising the incremental change in transient energy at both terminals following
the occurrence of fault has also been reported in [76]. A DC grid protection technique
incorporating current differential, where the sign convention is used to provide the discriminant is
also proposed in[19], [77], [78]. A pilot protection scheme utilising traveling wave current polarity
for application to MT-HVDC system has also been reported[72].
.5 DC Voltage Level (∆𝑽) Protection
The DC voltage level protection technique operates by responding to voltage
depressions over a long-time interval following the occurrence of close-up or high
impedance faults. This method is widely used in two-terminal HVDC systems[75], and
is generally used as a back up to voltage derivative or travelling wave protection [74].

3.5.6Current level (∆𝑽) DC Protection

An advantage of this method is that it does not rely on communication channels.

the ∆𝑽 protection, but a fault is detected when there is an incremental change in the
This is like

current and as such generally referred to as overcurrent protection. They are widely
used in low voltage DC systems such as DC traction systems in conjunction with di/dt.
Its application to DC grid has been proposed and is reported in[67]. A similar
approach utilising fault current limiter (FCL) has also been reported in [79
3.5.7 Travelling wave based protection
principle for HVDC systems
• The principle is the same as those used for HVAC systems. Proposals regarding travelling wave
based protection principles for HVDC systems is reported in[80]–[86]. A proposal regarding
the application of travelling wave protection for DC grids has been reported in [87], [88].
However, a major issue when adopted for the protection of DC grid is that it relies on
reflections (or multiple reflections) between the fault and the relay terminals thereby
incurring delay. These include the philosophies used in the traditional HVAC systems as well as
those proposed for HVDC systems including HVDC grids. However, the studies carried out
show that the reliance on successive reflection of the travelling wave components at the relay
terminal for fault identification imposed some limitations on its use for DC grid protection.
The reliance on complex DSP techniques would also imposed some computational burden as
well as incurring delays. This is because the wave propagation delay time may be longer than
the time required to detect and clear the fault. This is a major issue to be considered when
deploying travelling wave based protection principle for application to DC grids. Therefore,
new travelling wave based protection (TWBP) techniques are required to be designed and
developed for application to DC grids.
3.5.8 Boundary Protection
This is similar to that proposed for HVAC system where the frequency character of the fault generated
transient are extracted for fault identification. A two terminal HVDC line protection technique utilising
this concept has been reported in [60], [61]. However, none of such technique has been reported for DC
grid protection. 3.6 Options and Strategies for DC grid protection
3.6.1 “Unit” Versus “non-unit” based protection
principles Generally, the protection techniques discussed above fall under two categories
- unit and non-unit based. Protection schemes relying on information from the local end terminal are
referred to as non-unit protection scheme while those relying on information from both the local end
and remote end terminals are referred to as unit protection scheme. The information here referred to
the current and voltage superimposed signal recorded at the relaying terminal following fault inception.
Distance protection, overcurrent protection, under voltage, di/dt and dv/dt are examples of non-unit
type of protection. An advantage of the non-unit protection scheme is that they do not require
communication channel and as such no communication delay. Examples of unit protection are current
differential protection and polarity identification technique. For a protection to be reliable and fast in
operation and considering the time requirement for DC grid protection, the primary or main protection
must be a non-unit type protection technique. However, the secondary or back-up protection could be
unit – type protection.
3.6.2 Transient and steady-state based
protection principles
• Protection techniques and principles could also be classified as either steady state based or
transient based. Those protection techniques which are based on the character of the
transient components of the fault generated signal (voltage or/and current) are regarded as
transient based protection; whereas those based on the character of steady state
components of the fault generated signals are referred to as steady state based protection.
The traditional distance protection techniques applicable to AC systems is an example of
steady state based protection technique whereas travelling wave and polarity identification
technique, current and voltage derivative protection techniques are regarded as transient
based. Conventional HVAC systems uses the steady state based protection algorithm such as
the distance protection, thereby given the protection system enough time to detect the fault.
However, in DC system the fault must be detected and cleared during the transient state.
These parameters that vary with distance during the transient state such as the inductance
could be used, thereby paving the way for a distance protection strategy. An attempt was
made to relate the initial rate of rise of the fault current with the loop inductance, thereby
estimating the fault distance, the findings are presented in section 4
3.6.3 “Blocking” versus “non-blocking”
HVDC converters
• As discussed in section 2.5.3, MMC based HVDC are the most
preferred converter topology for application to DC grid due to its
technical advantages compared to other VSCs. The protection
principles for DC grid can either be archived using either of the two
MMC submodules configurations, the half bridge (or non-blocking
converter) or the full bridge (blocking converters) HVDC
converters[19], [68], [69]. Generally, the nonblocking converters are
not able to block fault currents whereas the blocking converter does.
• “Non-blocking” HVDC converters: In this technique, it has been
proposed to place DC circuit breakers at both ends of the DC overhead lines
or cables[69]. During DC side faults, the faulty segment is isolated without
interrupting the operation of the remaining converters connected to the
healthy section of the grid (Figure 3.19a). The major advantage of this
technique is that it does not require a total shut down of the entire grid.
Furthermore, active power transfer can be restored immediately following
fault clearance “Blocking”
HVDC converters: This involves blocking the converters using the full
bridge MMC HVDC model and thereafter isolating the faulty section using fast
mechanical switches during DC side faults in any of the sections (Figure
3.19b). An advantage of this technique is that the converters can provide
voltage support throughout the contingency. However, a major disadvantage
of this approach is that a considerable amount of time is taken to re-establish
the active power transfer on the healthy section of the DC grid [68].
3.6.4 Use of AC side Circuit Breakers

• This involves tripping the AC side circuit breakers at all converter stations and thereby
disconnecting the whole grid once a DC line /cable fault is detected. (Figure 3.20). The
converters are later connected to the grid when the faulty sections have been isolated
using fast DC switches or isolators. The major disadvantages with this method are that
the power flows in the healthy sections are disrupted. Furthermore, this technique
requires an extended period in re-establishing the reactive power of the converters
and the active power transfer on the healthy part of the DC network once the faulty
section is isolated. Clearly, the use of DC side circuit breakers is the most desirable for
the protection of DC grids and as such the protection technique adopted in this
research assumes a DC side breaker located at the ends of the lines/cables. Generally,
and in some cases fault current will be installed alongside DC breakers as part of the
protection strategies for the future DC grid. This will help to reduce the di/dt during
DC side short circuit conditions which will give the breaker time to operate