02A 1 Dat a and

CMN ent als of

– Fundam 20 2 5
4
Lecture art II)
(P
Signals
Announcements

• Tutorial Sessions commence this week (w/o 24 February 2025)

• Tutorial Session attendance will take place at G PURPLE 3 during:

• Periods 7 – 9 (13:00 – 15:25) on Mondays for Group K; and

• Periods 2 – 4 (08:50 – 11:15) on Fridays for Group L

• Reminder: Exercise #1 is due on Friday, 07 March 2025

• General information:
• Look out for any updates / information / etc. on Moodle.
Recap from LU #2 – Part I

• DATA and SIGNALS are two basic building blocks of computer networks

• All data transmitted is either digital or analog

• DATA is transmitted with a SIGNAL that can be either digital or analog

• All SIGNALS consist of three basic components:

• amplitude,
• frequency, and
• phase

• Two important factors affecting the transfer of a signal over a medium are:
• noise, and
• attenuation

• Four basic combinations of data and signals are possible

Objectives of this Learning Unit

• Distinguish between data and signals, and cite the advantages of digital
data and signals over analog data and signals

• Identify the three basic components of a signal

• Discuss the bandwidth of a signal and how it relates to data transfer speed

• Identify signal strength and attenuation, and how they are related

• Outline the basic characteristics of transmitting analog data with analog

signals, digital data with digital signals, digital data with analog signals, and
analog data with digital signals

• List and draw diagrams of the basic digital encoding techniques, and explain
the advantages and disadvantages of each
Objectives of this Learning Unit

• Identify the different shift keying (modulation) techniques, and describe their
advantages, disadvantages, and uses

• Identify the two most common digitization techniques, and describe their
advantages and disadvantages

• Identify the different data codes and how they are used in communication
systems
Converting Data into Signals

• There are four main combinations of data and signals:

• Analog data transmitted using analog signals

• Digital data transmitted using digital signals
• Digital data transmitted using discrete analog signals
• Analog data transmitted using digital signals
Converting Data into Signals
Transmitting Analog Data with Analog Signals

• In order to transmit analog data, you can modulate the data onto a set of
analog signals

• Broadcast radio and the older broadcast television are two very common
examples of this

• We modulate the data onto another set of frequencies so that all the
different channels can coexist at different frequencies
Converting Data into Signals
Transmitting Analog Data with Analog Signals
Converting Data into Signals
Transmitting Digital Data with Digital Signals: Digital Encoding Schemes

• There are numerous techniques available to convert digital data into digital
signals. Some of them include the following five:

• NRZ-L
• NRZI
• Manchester
• Differential Manchester
• Bipolar AMI

• These are used in LANs and some telephone systems

Converting Data into Signals
Transmitting Digital Data with Digital Signals: Digital Encoding Schemes
Converting Data into Signals
Transmitting Digital Data with Digital Signals: Digital Encoding Schemes

Nonreturn to Zero Digital Encoding Schemes

• Nonreturn to zero-level (NRZ-L) transmits 1s as zero voltages and 0s as

positive voltages

• Nonreturn to zero inverted (NRZI) has a voltage change at the beginning of

a 1 and no voltage change at the beginning of a 0

• Fundamental difference exists between NRZ-L and NRZI

• With NRZ-L, the receiver has to check the voltage level for each bit to determine
whether the bit is a 0 or a 1,

• With NRZI, the receiver has to check whether there is a change at the beginning
of the bit to determine if it is a 0 or a 1
Converting Data into Signals
Transmitting Digital Data with Digital Signals: Digital Encoding Schemes

Manchester Digital Encoding Schemes

• Note how with a Differential Manchester code, every bit has at least one
significant change. Some bits have two signal changes per bit (baud rate =
twice bps)
Converting Data into Signals
Transmitting Digital Data with Digital Signals: Digital Encoding Schemes

Bipolar-AMI Encoding Scheme

• The bipolar-AMI encoding scheme is unique among all the encoding

schemes because it uses three voltage levels

• When a device transmits a binary 0, a zero voltage is transmitted

• When the device transmits a binary 1, either a positive voltage or a negative

voltage is transmitted

• Which of these is transmitted depends on the binary 1 value that was last
transmitted
Converting Data into Signals
Transmitting Digital Data with Digital Signals: Digital Encoding Schemes

4B/5B Digital Encoding Scheme

• Yet another encoding technique; this one converts four bits of data into five-
bit quantities

• The five-bit quantities are unique in that no five-bit code has more than 2
consecutive zeroes

• The five-bit code is then transmitted using an NRZI encoded signal

Converting Data into Signals
Transmitting Digital Data with Digital Signals: Digital Encoding Schemes
Converting Data into Signals
Transmitting Digital Data with Discrete Analog Signals

• Three basic techniques:

• Amplitude shift keying

• Frequency shift keying
• Phase shift keying

• One can then combine two or more of these basic techniques to form more
complex modulation techniques (such as quadrature amplitude modulation)
Converting Data into Signals
Transmitting Digital Data with Discrete Analog Signals > Amplitude Shift Keying

• One amplitude encodes a 0 while another amplitude encodes a 1 (a form of

amplitude modulation)
Converting Data into Signals
Transmitting Digital Data with Discrete Analog Signals > Amplitude Shift Keying

• Note: here there are four different amplitudes, so we can encode 2 bits in
each signal change (bits per signal change = log2 (amplitude levels)).
Converting Data into Signals
Transmitting Digital Data with Discrete Analog Signals > Frequency Shift Keying

• One frequency encodes a 0 while another frequency encodes a 1 (a form of

frequency modulation)
Converting Data into Signals
Transmitting Digital Data with Discrete Analog Signals > Phase Shift Keying

• One phase change encodes a 0 while another phase change encodes a 1

(a form of phase modulation)
Converting Data into Signals
Transmitting Digital Data with Discrete Analog Signals > Phase Shift Keying

• Quadrature Phase Shift Keying

• Four different phase angles used

• 45 degrees
• 135 degrees
• 225 degrees
• 315 degrees
Converting Data into Signals
Transmitting Digital Data with Discrete Analog Signals > Phase Shift Keying
Converting Data into Signals
Transmitting Digital Data with Discrete Analog Signals > Phase Shift Keying

• Quadrature amplitude modulation

• As an example of QAM, 12 different phases are combined with two different

amplitudes

• Since only 4 phase angles have 2 different amplitudes, there are a total of 16
combinations

• With 16 signal combinations, each baud equals 4 bits of information (log 2(16) =
4, or inversely, 24 = 16)
Converting Data into Signals
Transmitting Digital Data with Discrete Analog Signals > Phase Shift Keying
Converting Data into Signals
Transmitting Analog Data with Digital Signals

• To convert analog data into a digital signal, there are two techniques:

• Pulse code modulation (the more common)

• Delta modulation
Converting Data into Signals
Transmitting Analog Data with Digital Signals > Pulse Code Modulation

• The analog waveform is sampled at specific intervals and the “snapshots”

are converted to binary values
Converting Data into Signals
Transmitting Analog Data with Digital Signals > Pulse Code Modulation

• When the binary values are later converted to an analog signal, a waveform
similar to the original results
Converting Data into Signals
Transmitting Analog Data with Digital Signals > Pulse Code Modulation

• The more snapshots taken in the same amount of time, or the more
quantization levels, the better the resolution
Converting Data into Signals
Transmitting Analog Data with Digital Signals > Pulse Code Modulation

• Since telephone systems digitize human voice, and since the human voice
has a fairly narrow bandwidth, telephone systems can digitize voice into
either 128 or 256 levels

• These are called quantization levels

• If 128 levels, then each sample is 7 bits (27 = 128)

• If 256 levels, then each sample is 8 bits (28 = 256)

Converting Data into Signals
Transmitting Analog Data with Digital Signals > Pulse Code Modulation

• How fast do you have to sample an input source to get a fairly accurate
representation?

• Nyquist says 2 times the highest frequency

• Thus, if you want to digitize voice (4000Hz), you need to sample at 8000
samples per second
Converting Data into Signals
Transmitting Analog Data with Digital Signals > Delta Modulation

• An analog waveform is tracked, using a binary 1 to represent a rise in

voltage, and a 0 to represent a drop
The Relationship Between Frequency and Bits per Second

• Higher Data Transfer Rates

• How do you send data faster?

 Use a higher frequency signal (make sure the medium can handle the
higher frequency
 Use a higher number of signal levels

• In both cases, noise can be a problem

The Relationship Between Frequency and Bits per Second

• Maximum Data Transfer Rates

• How do you calculate a maximum data rate?

• Use Shannon’s equation

• S(f) = f x log2(1 + S/N)

• Where:

• f is the signal frequency (bandwidth)

• S is the signal power in watts, and
• N is the noise power in watts
The Relationship Between Frequency and Bits per Second

• For example, what is the data rate of a 3400 Hz signal with 0.2 watts of
power and 0.0002 watts of noise?

• S(f) = 3400 x log2 (1 + 0.2/0.0002)

= 3400 x log2 (1001)
= 3400 x 9.97
= 33898 bps
Data Codes

• The set of all textual characters or symbols and their corresponding binary
patterns is called a data code

• There are three common data code sets:

• EBCDIC
• ASCII
• Unicode
Data Codes
EBCDIC
Data Codes
ASCII
Data Codes
Unicode

• Each character is 16 bits

• A large number of languages / character sets

• For example:

• T equals 0000 0000 0101 0100

• r equals 0000 0000 0111 0010
• a equals 0000 0000 0110 0001
Data and Signal Conversions In Action: Two Examples

• Let us transmit the message “Sam, what time is the meeting with
accounting? Hannah.”

• This message leaves Hannah’s workstation and travels across a local area
network
Data and Signal Conversions In Action: Two Examples
Data and Signal Conversions In Action: Two Examples
Summary

• Four basic combinations of data and signals are possible

• analog data converted to an analog signal

• digital data converted to a digital signal
• digital data converted to a discrete analog signal
• and analog data converted to a digital signal

• To transmit analog data over an analog signal, the analog waveform of the
data is combined with another analog waveform in a process known as
modulation

• Digital data carried by digital signals is represented by digital encoding

formats

• For digital data to be transmitted using analog signals, digital data must first
undergo a process called shift keying or modulation

• amplitude shift keying

• frequency shift keying
• phase shift keying
Summary

• Two common techniques for converting analog data so that it may be

carried over digital signals are:

• pulse code modulation, and

• delta modulation

• Data codes are necessary to transmit the letters, numbers, symbols, and
control characters found in text data

• Three important data codes are

• ASCII
• EBCDIC, and
• Unicode
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