MIST EECE 481 : POWER

SYSTEM OPERAION &

CONTROL
MD AHSAN KABIR
M.Sc.(KTH, Sweden) B.Sc.(EEE), IUT, OIC
Assistant Professor, EECE, MIST

Lecture (23-28)
Power System Security
Ref. Book: Power system Security analysis
Author: Ramos & Victor
Chapter-6

1
Introduction to Power System Security
Power System Reliability
• An electric power system serves the basic function of supplying customers, both
large and small, with electrical energy as economically and as reliably as possible.
• The reliability associated with a power system is a measure of its ability to provide
an adequate supply of electrical energy for the period intended under the operating
conditions encountered
The criteria and techniques first used in practical applications were basically
deterministic ones, for instance
• Planning generating capacity : Installed capacity equals the expected maximum
demand plus a fixed percentage of the future demand;
• Operating capacity : Spinning capacity equals the expected load demand plus a
reserve
equal to one or more largest units;
• Planning network capacity: Construct a minimum number of circuits to a load group,
the minimum number being dependent on the maximum demand of the group.

2
Introduction to Power System Security
Power System Reliability

Although the above-mentioned three and other criteria have been developed to account for
randomly occurring failures, they are inherently deterministic.

The essential weakness of these methods is that they do not account for the
probabilistic/stochastic nature of system behavior, customer load demands and/or of
component failures. Such aspects can be considered only through probabilistic criteria.

• Forced outage rate of generating units is known to be a function of unit size and
therefore a fixed percentage reserve cannot ensure a consistent risk;
• Failure rates of overhead lines are functions of their lengths, design aspects, locations
and environment, etc. - therefore a consistent risk of supply interruption cannot be
ensured by constructing a minimum number of circuits;
• All planning and operating decisions are based on load forecasting techniques which
cannot predict future loads precisely, i.e., uncertainties will always exist in the
forecasts. This imposes statistical factors which should be assessed probabilistically.

3
Introduction to Power System Security
Power System Reliability

• It is important to conjecture at this point on what can be done regarding reliability

assessment and why it is necessary.
• Failures of components, plant, and systems occur randomly; the frequency, duration
and impact of failures vary from one year to the next.
• Generally all utilities record details of the events as they occur, and produce a set of
performance measures, such as:
• system availability
• estimated unsupplied energy
• number of incidents
• number of hours of interruption
• excursions beyond set voltage (and frequency) limits

4
Introduction to Power System Security
Power System Reliability
Power system reliability can be divided into the two basic aspects of

System Adequacy
• relates to the existence of sufficient facilities within the system to satisfy
customer load demands.

• These include the facilities to generate power, and the associated

transmission and distribution facilities required to transport the
generated energy to the load points.

System Security
• Security relates to the response of the system to sudden disturbances it is
subjected to.
• These may include conditions associated with local and widespread
disturbances and loss of major generation/transmission.
• Most of the techniques presently available are in the domain of adequacy
assessment.

5
Introduction to Power System Security

• Security is often termed as the ability of a power system to maintain the desired state
without violating any of the imposed operational limits (e.g. bus voltages and line
flows) against predictable changes (demand and generation evolution) and
unpredictable events (called contingencies) likely to occur during real-time
operation.

• However, such an ability refers to static or steady state security and this is usually
evaluated using load flow analysis.

• On the contrary, dynamic security refers to the ability of a system to retain transient
stability in the event of a contingency (such as faults or sudden large load or
generation change) and evolve to a new steady state.

• If a system is found to pass static security test specially against a large

contingency it does not necessarily imply that it will be able to pass dynamic
security test. So it needs to be tested for that separately using a time domain
stability analysis which is often a tedious process.

6
Introduction to Power System Security
• Before the 1965 blackout in the north east USA, ‘security’ concept was not evolved.

• It was ‘covered’ if the system was designed to be reliable with adequate redundancy in
generation and transmission capacities at the planning stage considering next 20 to 30
years’ load and generation growth with some probability.

• But the outage events, maintenance, repair and environmental conditions occurring
during actual operation of a system are completely different from those conditions
considered at the planning stage several years back so that the operators have to
mobilize the resources in real-time what is known as security.

• In short, reliability implies higher investment while security implies more responsibility
for operators.

• Reliability is expressed in terms of various indices e.g. LOLP while security is not
expressed in terms of an index rather it is perceived if violation free operation is
possible for a system against the top-ranking contingencies from a short list.

7
Power System operating states
NORMAL state. Here no violation as detected by checking the SCADA captured
and State Estimation filtered measurements against thresholds.

Normal state
Restorstion

Emergency state Alert state

Here operational limits and

consumers’ demand not satisfied Spinning reserve reduction and a critical contingency
may lead to emergency state.
set by security constrained optimal power flow
(SCOPF)

8
Example 6.1 (Power system security & Economy)

• Economic Dispatch is done and production cost 2800 $/h. Secure or Normal but unsafe state
• Preventive control taken in advance can make the system Fig. (a) safe and secure as in this
Fig. (c ). But the production cost is now 3300 $/h

Base Case Corrective Actions Preventive Actions

9
Security Assessment
• The evaluation of the security degree of a
power system is known as security
assessment

• The ability to maintain the desired state

against predictable changes (demand and
generation evolution) and unpredictable
events called contingencies

Functions of System Security

• System Monitoring
• Contingency Analysis
• Security constrained Optimal power flow
• Factors Affecting Security

10
Contingency Analysis
A common criterion is to consider the following contingencies:

• A single outage of any system element (generator, transmission line, transformer, or

reactor), known as the N −1 security criterion. Simultaneous outages of any two
elements in the system is knowns N – 2 security criterion.

• In special situations, the outage of the largest generator in an area and any of the
interconnection lines with the rest of the system.

• In Security assessment/Contingency analysis, basically consist of multiple studies in

which the state of the network after the outage of one or multiple elements are
determined.

• Using distribution factors (can identify only overloads i.e. real power flow limit
violations in the lines in an approximate way)

• A fast decoupled load flow analysis only for the contingencies selected through a
screening process. This method can identify real power flow as well as voltage
violations.

11
Contingency Analysis
These two methods can also be used for screening:

• Ranking the contingencies in descending order through application of distribution factors.

• Identifying the severity potential of any contingency firstly running a fast decoupled load
flow only for one or two iterations in the post contingency state.

Example 6.2

• Contingency analysis: N-1 and N-2 criteria.

• The N-1 and N-2 contingency analysis of the system of Ex 6.1 comprise a detailed study
• of the following states:

12
Example 6.2 (Contingency Analysis)

N-1 criteria

5 Contingency Cases

13
Example 6.2 (Contingency Analysis)
N-2 criteria

10 Contingency
Cases

14
Example 6.2 (Contingency Analysis)

15
Contingency Analysis (Example 6.1)

Cases Events
Case-1 Low voltage problem
Case-2 Low voltage problem and add to overload on line 1-3
Case-3
Case-4
Case-5
Case-6 Blackout (Due to insufficient generation and transmission resources)
Case-7 Blackout (Due to insufficient reactive power resources)
Case-8 Low voltage problem
Case-9 Low voltage problem
Case-10 Low voltage problem
Case-11 Blackout( Due to insufficient reactive power resources)
Case-12 Low voltage problem
Case-13 Blackout (Due to insufficient generation and transmission resources)
Case-14 Low voltage problem
Case-15 Low voltage problem

16
Contingency Analysis
• Earlier algorithms for contingency selection are based on a classification of the contingencies
following a descendent order of severity.

• This classification is performed using ranking indexes that intend to evaluate approximately the
loading level for transmission lines and transformers after a given contingency

Distribution factors

• Linear factors that represent the per unit change of power flow in each transmission line or transformer
as a result of the outage of a generator or a branch element.

• To calculate approximately the active power flow of each branch after a given contingency, it is
sufficient to multiply the corresponding distribution factor by the power of the lost generator or the
flow of the lost branch before the contingency

17
Analysis of Single Contingencies

18
Analysis of Single Contingencies

Current Injection distribution Factor Kij,m

19
Analysis of Single Contingencies

20
Analysis of Single Contingencies

21
Problem 14.2
• A small power system of five buses and six lines shown in the Figure, When the lines are
represented by their series reactance, the system is the same as that given for in Table 14.l.

• The P-Q loads and generation shown in Fig. 14.12 correspond to a base-case power-flow solution of
the system, which yields the bus voltages tabulated under Case a in Table 14.2.

• Using distribution factors, predict the current in line 5-3 when line 5-2 is outraged under the given
operating conditions.

• Compare the prediction with the exact value obtained from an ac power-flow solution of the same
change case.

22
Analysis of Single Contingencies

23
Problem 14.2

24
Contingency Analysis Based on Distribution Factors
The DC load flow provides a linear relation between active power injections and
phase angles of nodal voltages,

Where, x is the reactance of the branch between nodes i and j. The above equation can
be written in matrix form as P = B θ

Where,
 A is the reduced branch-to-node incidence matrix of size (n b-1) xnl (omitting the slack bus)
 X is a nl xnl diagonal reactance matrix of branch elements, (note that X is not same as
matrix B)
 Sf is the [nlx(nb-1)] matrix of sensitivities giving distribution factors between any branch
power flow and any injected power

25
Contingency Analysis Based on Distribution Factors

26
Example: 6.3
Using Distribution Factors to Study Generator Outages

• Consider that the system of

below Figure 6.5 suffers the
outage of the Generator
located at Bus-3

27
Solution 6.3

28
Solution 6.3

29
Solution 6.3

• Change in Line load flows computed by distribution factors that are based on only active power
flow

30
Contingency Analysis Based on Distribution Factors
Branch outage distribution factors using compensation theorem

31
Contingency Analysis Based on Distribution Factors

An alternative to the use of the compensation theorem

To obtain the branch outage distribution factors is based on modeling the outage of the
branch using two fictitious injections at both ends. This approach allows to avoid
refactorizing matrix B to obtain Sf . The fictitious injections must coincide with the
power flow after the outage (Figure 6.7):

32
Contingency Analysis Based on Distribution Factors

33
Contingency Analysis Based on Distribution Factors
Using Distribution Factors to Study the outage of a transmission line
In the system of Example 6.3, Suppose the line 1-3 suddenly fails. Modifying
matrices A,X and B to consider the line outage, the new sensitivity matrix is obtained
as

34
Contingency Analysis Based on Distribution Factors

35
Contingency Analysis Using Ranking Method
• Short listing the Contingencies before analysis using FDLF method
• In order to avoid analysing huge number of probable contingencies in a large system in real
.time, so that the decisions can be implemented before the base case operating condition
changes, a short listing needs to be done before a detailed analysis.

• A commonly used method to detect critical contingencies is based on determining a

contingency ranking in descending order of severity.

• A ranking index as follows is used to quantify the loading level of the system after a given
outage.

• Where, Pfk is the branch flow of element k from a total of b lines and transformers, obtained
approximately using distribution factors. In this case, the ranking index is just the average rate of
lines and transformers.

36
Contingency Analysis Using Ranking Method
• The contingency analysis is done using a
FDLF on the contingencies ranked in
descending order of RI unless a non-
problematic contingency is detected.

Drawback:

• The major drawback of such a screening

method due to using distribution factors in
computing line flows, summing all line flows
and averaging the RI value may be higher for a
contingency that may cause no overloading of
any line at all or slight overloading in several
lines than a contingency likely to cause critical
overloading of one or two lines

37
Example 6.5
To illustrate masking effect

38
Example 6.5 (o illustrate masking effect)
• In base case (b=6) i.e. without considering any contingency RI as in the formula is 0.413.

• Then using distribution factors and computing line flows and RI for each of the N-1
contingencies the following Table is obtained.

• In consequence, post contingency states can be classified in descending RI order:

L2, G3, L3, L4, G4, L1, L6, and L5.

• Then if a FDLF is done on these ranked contingencies G3 outage will pose non problematic
and hence the last 6 contingencies will not be analyzed

• whereas the 3rd (L3 outage) and 4th (L4 outage) contingencies will cause critical overloading
of respectively L2 and L3 lines as may be seen from the results if a load flow analysis were
done for all the contingencies regardless of their ranks

39
Example 6.5 (to illustrate masking effect)
Screening based on 1 iteration of P -Q or FDLF load flow
• Distribution factors totally ignore voltage problem
(assume those 1 pu). So alternative screening method
is required which could be a single iteration of FDLF
on the network considering N-1 condition.

• Obviously, the main advantage of the screening

techniques over ranking index based techniques is
the fact that all contingencies are analyzed, though
approximately, without making any previous
selection.
• Effectiveness of such a method is illustrated by Example 6.6.

• However, identification errors may arise here also since flows and voltages
are approximate values obtained after only one iteration of the load flow
algorithm.

• Another alternative is “bounding” i.e. full FDLF for a reduced part of the
network surrounding the contingency under consideration.
Example 6.5 (to illustrate masking effect)
Details of numerical results for one iteration FDLF applied for two contingencies

LV not detected
Example 6.5 (to illustrate masking effect)
Comparison of the effectiveness using full FDLF for all contingencies
THANK YOU

43