CHAPTER ONE

REVIEW OF VECTORS AND

MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS

1
 INTRODUCTION
• Electromagnetics(EM): is a branch of Physics or
Electrical Engineering in which electrical and
magnetic phenomena are studied.
• Electromagnetics (EM) may be regarded as the
study of the interactions between electric
charges at rest and in motion.
• It entails the analysis, synthesis, physical
interpretation, and application of electric and
magnetic fields. 2
EM principles find applications in various
allied disciplines such as:
microwaves, fiber optics,
antennas, electromagnetic
electric machines, interference and
satellite communications, compatibility,
bio-electromagnetics, electromechanical
energy conversion,
plasmas,
radar meteorology, and
nuclear research,
remote sensing.
3
EM devices include:
transformers, optical fibers,
electric relays, radars, and
radio/TV, lasers.
telephone, • The design of these
electric motors, devices requires
transmission lines, thorough knowledge
waveguides, of the laws and
principles of EM.
antennas,
4
 Cont …
• The subject of electromagnetic phenomena in this book
can be summarized in Maxwell's equations:

• Where:

5
 SCALARS AND VECTORS
• A quantity can be either a scalar or a vector.
• A scalar is a quantity that has only magnitude.
Quantities such as: time, mass, distance,
temperature, entropy, electric potential, and
population are scalars.
• A vector is a quantity that has both magnitude and
direction.
Vector quantities include velocity, force,
displacement, and electric field intensity.
6
 Cont …
• To distinguish between a scalar and a vector it
is customary to represent:
A vector by a letter with an arrow on top of
it, such as: and , or by a letter in bold face
type such as: A and B.
A scalar is represented simply by a letter:
e.g. A, B, U, and V.
• EM theory is essentially a study of some
particular fields. 7

• A field is a function that specifies a particular

 Cont …
• If the quantity is scalar (vector), the field is said
to be a scalar (vector) field.
Examples of scalar fields are: temperature
distribution in a building, sound intensity in a
theater, electric potential in a region, and
refractive index of a stratified medium.
Examples of vector fields are: the
gravitational force on a body in space and the
velocity of rain drops in the atmosphere. 8
 VECTOR ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION
• Two vectors A and B can be added together to
give another vector C; that is:

• The vector addition is carried out component by

component. Thus, if:
and then

9
 Cont …
• Vector subtraction is similarly carried out as:

• Graphically, vector addition and subtraction are

obtained by either the parallelogram rule or the
head-to-tail (triangular) rule.
10
11
 VECTOR MULTIPLICATION
• When two vectors A and B are multiplied, the result is
either a scalar or a vector depending on how they are
multiplied.
• Thus there are two types of vector multiplication:
1) Scalar (or dot) product: A • B
2) Vector (or cross) product: A X B
• Dot product:
The dot product of two vectors A and B, written as A
• B. is defined geometrically as the product of the
magnitudes of A and B and the cosine of the angle
12

between them.
 Cont …
• Where is the smaller angle between A and B.
• The result of A • B is called either the scalar product
because it is scalar, or the dot product due to the dot sign.
• If and, then:

Which is obtained by multiplying A and B component by

component.
• Two vectors A and B are said to be orthogonal (or
perpendicular) with each other if A • B = 0.
13
 Cont …
• Cross product:
• The cross product of two vectors A and B, written as, is a
vector quantity whose magnitude is the area of the
parallelepiped formed by A and B and is in the direction of
advance of a right-handed screw as A is turned into B.
• Thus:

Where an is a unit vector normal to the plane containing A

and B.

14
 COORDINATE SYSTEMS AND
TRANSFORMATION
CARTESIAN COORDINATES (X, Y, Z)
• A point P can be represented as (x, y, z).
• The ranges of the coordinate variables x, y, and z are:

• A vector A in Cartesian (otherwise known as rectangular)

coordinates can be written as:

15

Where are unit vectors along the x-, y-, and z-direction.
 Cont …
CIRCULAR CYLINDRICAL COORDINATES
• A point P in cylindrical coordinates is represented as
and is as shown in Figure below.
• Observe that:
 is the radius of the cylinder passing through P or
the radial distance from the z-axis.
called the azimuthal angle, is measured from the x-
axis in the xy-plane; and
z is the same as in the Cartesian system.
16
17
 Cont …
• The ranges of the variables are:

• A vector A in cylindrical coordinates can be written as:

Where: are unit vectors in the directions as illustrated in

Figure above.
18
 Cont …
SPHERICAL COORDINATES
• The spherical coordinate system is most appropriate when dealing
with problems having a degree of spherical symmetry.
• A point P can be represented as and is illustrated in Figure below.
• From Figure below, we notice that:
 is defined as the distance from the origin to point P or the
radius of a sphere centered at the origin and passing through P
 (called the colatitude) is the angle between the z-axis and the
position vector of P; and
 is measured from the x-axis (the same azimuthal angle in
cylindrical coordinates).
19
20
 Cont …
• According to these definitions, the ranges of the
variables are:

• A vector A in spherical coordinates may be written as:

• where are unit vectors along the directions

21
22
 VECTOR CALCULUS
DIFFERENTIAL LENGTH, AREA, AND VOLUME
• Differential elements in length, area, and volume are
useful in vector calculus.
• They are defined in the Cartesian, cylindrical, and
spherical coordinate systems.
A. Cartesian Coordinates:
From Figure below, we notice that:
(1) Differential displacement is given by:
23
24
 Cont …
(2) Differential normal area is given by:

and illustrated in Figure below.

(3) Differential volume is given by:

25
26
 Cont …
• What we have to remember at all times about
differential elements is and how to get and from it.
• Once is remembered, and can easily be found.
• For example, along can be obtained from by
multiplying the components of along , and ; that is,.
• Also, can be obtained from as the product of the three
components of ; that is, .

27
B. Cylindrical Coordinates: Cont …
• Notice from Figure below that in cylindrical
coordinates, differential elements can be found as
follows:
(1) Deferential Displacement is given by:

(2) Differential Normal Area: is given by:

28

• and illustrated in Figure below.

29
 Cont …
(3) Differential volume is given by:

• As mentioned in the previous section on Cartesian

coordinates, we only need to remember; can easily be
obtained from .
• For example, along is the product of the components
of along and ; that is, .
• Also is the product of the three components of ; that is,

30
31
 Cont …
C. Spherical Coordinates:
• From Figure below, we notice that in spherical
coordinates:
(1) The differential displacement is:

(2) The differential normal area (illustrated in Figure

below) is:

32
33
 Cont …
(3) The differential volume is:

• Again, we need to remember only from which and are

easily obtained.
• For example, along is obtained as the product of the
components of along and; that is, •
• is the product of the three components of ; that is,

34
 LINE, SURFACE, AND VOLUME
INTEGRALS
• The familiar concept of integration will now be
extended to cases when the integrand involves a vector.
• By a line we mean the path along a curve in space.
• We shall use terms such as line, curve, and contour
interchangeably.
The line integral: The line integral:

:is the integral of the tangential component of A along

curve L. 35
 Cont …
• Given a vector field A and a curve L, we define the
integral:

as the line integral of A around L (see Figure below).

• If the path of integration is a closed curve such as abca
in Figure below, the above equation becomes a closed
contour integral:

:which is called the circulation of A around L.

36
37
 Cont …
• Given a vector field A, continuous in a region containing
the smooth surface S, we define the surface integral or
the flux of A through S (see Figure below) as:

: Where, at any point on S, is the unit normal to S.

• For a closed surface (defining a volume), the above
equation becomes:

:which is referred to as the net outward flux of'A from S.

38
39
 Cont …
• We define the integral:

:as the volume integral of the scalar over the volume.

• The physical meaning of a line, surface, or volume
integral depends on the nature of the physical quantity
represented by A or .

40
 DEL OPERATOR
• The del operator, written, is the vector differential
operator.
• In Cartesian coordinates,

• This vector differential operator, otherwise known as

the gradient operator, is not a vector in itself, but when
it operates on a scalar function, for example, a vector
ensues.

41
 Cont …
• The operator is useful in denning:
1) The gradient of a scalar, written, as
2) The divergence of a vector A, written as
3) The curl of a vector A, written as
4) The Laplacian of a scalar, written as
• Del operator in cylindrical coordinates is derived as:

42
 Cont …
• Similarly, Del operator in spherical coordinates is
derived as:

• Notice that in equations for del operator in cylindrical

and spherical coordinate, the unit vectors are placed to
the right of the differential operators because the unit
vectors depend on the angles.

43
 GRADIENT OF A SCALAR
• The gradient of a scalar field is a vector that
represents both the magnitude and the direction of the
maximum space rate of increase of.
• A mathematical expression for the gradient can be
obtained by evaluating the difference in the field
between points and of Figure shown below where and
are contours on which is constant.
• From calculus,

44
45
• For convenience, let: Cont …

• Then:

Or

• where is the differential displacement from to and is

the angle between G and .

46
 Cont …
• From the last equation above, we notice that is
maximum when, that is, when is in the direction of G.
• Hence,

Where is the normal derivative.

• Thus G has its magnitude and direction as those of the
maximum rate of change of.

47
 Cont …
• By definition, G is the gradient of.
• Therefore:

• The gradient of can be expressed in

Cartesian/Rectangular, cylindrical, and spherical
coordinates.
• For Cartesian coordinates:

48
 Cont …
• For cylindrical coordinates:

• For spherical coordinates:

49
 Cont …
• Also take note of the following fundamental properties of
the gradient of a scalar field:
1) The magnitude of equals the maximum rate of change
in per unit distance.
2) points in the direction of the maximum rate of
change in.
3) at any point is perpendicular to the constant surface
that passes through that point (see points P and Q in
Figure above).
4) If, is said to be the scalar potential of A. 50
 Cont …
5) The projection (or component) of in the direction of
a unit vector a is and is called the directional
derivative of along a.
• This is the rate of change of in the direction of
a.
• For example, in equation above is the
directional derivative of along in Figure for
gradient of a scalar, shown above.
• Thus the gradient of a scalar function provides 51

us with both the direction in whichchanges most

 DIVERGENCE OF A VECTOR AND
DIVERGENCE THEOREM
• Earlier it is defined that, the net outflow of the flux of a
vector field A from a closed surface S is obtained from the
integral:

• We now define the divergence of A as the net outward flow

of flux per unit volume over a closed incremental surface.
• The divergence of A at a given point P is the outward flux
per unit volume as the volume shrinks about P.
52
• Hence; Cont …

Where is the volume enclosed by the closed surface S in

which P is located.
• Physically, we may regard the divergence of the vector
field A at a given point as a measure of how much the
field diverges or emanates from that point.
• Figure shown below illustrates that the divergence of a
vector field at point P.

53
54
 Cont …
Figure (a) shows that the divergence of a vector field at
point P is positive because the vector diverges (or
spreads out) at P.
In Figure (b) a vector field has negative divergence (or
convergence) at P,
In Figure (c) a vector field has zero divergence at P.
• The divergence of a vector field can also be viewed as
simply the limit of the field's source strength per unit
volume (or source density);
it is positive at a source point in the field, and 55

negative at a sink point, or

• Thus, the divergence of A at point: Cont …
in a Cartesian coordinate system is given by:

in a Cylindrical coordinate system is given by:

in a Spherical coordinate system is given by:

56
 Cont …
• From the definition of the divergence of A, it is not
difficult to expect that:

• This is called the divergence theorem, otherwise known

as the Gauss - Ostrogradsky theorem.
• The divergence theorem states that the total outward
flux of a vector field A through the closed surface “S” is
the same as the volume integral of the divergence of A.

57
 CURL OF A VECTOR AND STOKES'S
THEOREM
• In previous section, we defined the circulation of a
vector field A around a closed path L as the integral:

• The curl of A is an axial (or rotational) vector whose

magnitude is the maximum circulation of A per unit
area as the area lends to zero and whose direction is
the normal direction of the area when the area is
oriented so as to make the circulation maximum.

58
 Cont …
• That is,

Where the area is bounded by the curve L and is the

unit vector normal to the surface and is determined
using the right-hand rule.
• After a long path of derivation, we have curl of A in
direction as:

59
 Cont …
• The y - and z - components of the curl of A can be found
in the same way.
• We obtain:

• In Cartesian coordinates the curl of A is easily found

using:

60
• Or Cont …

• The curl of A in cylindrical coordinates as:

• Or

61
 Cont …

• Or

62
• The physical significance of the curl of a vector field is.
evident in equation defined for curl; the curl provides
the maximum value of the circulation of the field per
unit area (or circulation density) and indicates the
direction along which this maximum value occurs.
• The curl of a vector field A at a point P may be
regarded as a measure of the circulation or how much
the field curls around P.
• For example, Figure shown below shows that the curl
of a vector field around P.
Figure (a) shows that the curl of a vector field
63
around P is directed out of the page.
64
 Cont …
• Also, from the definition of the curl of A, we may expect
that:

• This is called Stokes's theorem.

• Stokes's theorem suites that the circulation of a
vector field A around a (closed) path L is equal lo the
surface integral of the curl of A over the open surface S
bounded by L (see Figure below) provided that A and
are continuous on S.
65
 LAPLACIAN OF A SCALAR
• For practical reasons, it is expedient to introduce a
single operator which is the composite of gradient and
divergence operators.
• This operator is known as the Laplacian.
• The Laplacian of a scalar field, written as, is the
divergence of the gradient of.
• Thus, in Cartesian coordinates; Laplacian

66
• That is; Cont …

• Notice that the Laplacian of a scalar field is another

scalar field.
• The Laplacian of in other coordinate systems can be
obtained from by transformation.
• In cylindrical coordinates;

67
• In spherical coordinates; Cont …

• A scalar field is said to be harmonic in a given region if

its Laplacian vanishes in that region.
• In other words, if:

:is satisfied in the region, the solution for is harmonic (it

is of the form of sine or cosine).
• The equation is called Laplace's equation.
68
 CLASSIFICATION OF VECTOR FIELDS
• A vector field is uniquely characterized by its
divergence and curl.
• Neither the divergence nor curl of a vector field is
sufficient to completely describe the field.
• All vector fields can be classified in terms of their
vanishing or non – vanishing divergence or curl as
follows:
a) b)
c) d)
• Figure shown below, illustrates typical fields in these
69

four categories.
70
 Cont …
• A vector field A is said to be solenoidal (or
divergenceless) if:

Such a field has neither source nor sink of flux.

• From the divergence theorem;

• Hence, flux lines of A entering any closed surface must

also leave it.
• Examples of solenoidal fields are incompressible fluids,
71

magnetic fields, and conduction current density under

 Cont …
• In general, the field of curl F (for any F) is purely
solenoidal because:

:as shown in Example 3.10 (on text book).

• Thus, a solenoidal field A can always be expressed in
terms of another vector F; that is, if:

Then:
72
 Cont …
• A vector field A is said to be irrotational (or potential)
if:

• That is, a curl-free vector is irrotational.

• From Stokes's theorem:

• Thus in an irrotational field A, the circulation of A around

a closed path is identically zero.
• This implies that the line integral of A is independent of
the chosen path. 73
• Therefore, an irrotational field is also known as a.
conservative field.
• Examples of irrotational fields include the electrostatic
field and the gravitational field.
• In general, the field of gradient (for any scalar) is
purely irrotational since (see Practice Exercise 3.10 on
text book)

• Thus, an irrotational field A can always be expressed in

terms of a scalar field; that is, if
Then 74
 Cont …
• For this reason, A may be called a potential field and the
scalar potential of A.
• The negative sign in equation above has been inserted
for physical reasons that will become evident in
Chapter 4.
• A vector A is uniquely prescribed within a region by its
divergence and its curl.
• If we let:

And 75
 Cont …
• can be regarded as the source density of A and its
circulation density.
• Any vector A satisfying the above pair of equations
with both and vanishing at infinity can be written as
the sum of two vectors: one irrotational (zero curl), the
other solenoidal (zero divergence).
• This is called Helmholtz 's theorem.
• Thus we may write:

76
 Cont …
• If we let and, it is evident from Example 3.10 and
Practice Exercise 3.10 (on text book) that and ,
showing that is irrotational and is solenoidal.
• Finally, it is evident from two equations above (check
as exercise) that any vector field has a Laplacian that
satisfies:

77
 ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS
• An electrostatic field is produced by a static charge
distribution.
• A typical example of such a field is found in a cathode-ray tube.
• Electrostatics is a fascinating subject that has grown up in
diverse areas of application.
• Electric power transmission, X-ray machines, and lightning
protection are associated with strong electric fields and will
require a knowledge of electrostatics to understand and design
suitable equipment.
• The devices used in solid-state electronics are based on
electrostatics. 78
 Cont …
• These include resistors, capacitors, and active devices
such as bipolar and field effect transistors, which are
based on control of electron motion by electrostatic
fields.
• Almost all computer peripheral devices, with the
exception of magnetic memory, are based on
electrostatic fields.
• Touch pads, capacitance keyboards, cathode-ray tubes,
liquid crystal displays, and electrostatic printers are
typical examples.
79
 Cont …
• In medical work, diagnosis is often carried out with the aid of
electrostatics, as incorporated in electrocardiograms,
electroencephalograms, and other recordings of organs with
electrical activity including eyes, ears, and stomachs.
• In industry, electrostatics is applied in a variety of forms such
as paint spraying, electrodeposition, electrochemical
machining, and separation of fine particles.
• Electrostatics is used in agriculture to sort seeds, direct
sprays to plants, measure the moisture content of crops, spin
cotton, and speed baking of
bread and smoking of meat.
80
 Cont …
• We begin our study of electrostatics by investigating the
two fundamental laws governing electrostatic fields:
1) Coulomb's law, and
2) Gauss's law.
• Both of these laws are based on experimental studies and
they are interdependent.
• Although Coulomb's law is applicable in finding the
electric field due to any charge configuration, it is easier
to use Gauss's law when charge distribution is
symmetrical.
81
 Cont …
• Based on Coulomb's law, the concept of electric field
intensity will be introduced and applied to cases
involving point, line, surface, and volume charges.
• Special problems that can be solved with much effort
using Coulomb's law will be solved with ease by
applying Gauss's law.

82
 COLUMB'S LAW AND FIELD INTENSITY
• Coulomb's law is an experimental law, it deals with the
force a point charge exerts on another point charge.
• Charges are generally measured in coulombs (C).
Coulomb's law states that the force F between two
point charges is:
1) Along the line joining them
2) Directly proportional to the product of the charges
3) Inversely proportional to the square of the distance
R between them.
83
• Expressed mathematically, Cont …

where is the proportionality constant.

• The constant so is known as the permittivity of free

space (in farads per meter) and has the value:

84
• Thus; Cont …

• If point charges are located at points having position

vectors , then the force on due to, shown in Figure
below, is given by:

85
86
 Cont …
• By substituting, we may write:

• If we have more than two point charges, we can use the

principle of superposition to determine the force on a
particular charge.
• The principle states that if there are N charges located,
respectively, at points with position vectors, the
resultant force F on a charge located at point is the
vector sum of the forces exerted on by each of the
charges. 87
• Hence: Cont …

Or

• We can now introduce the concept of electric field

intensity.
• The electric field intensity (or electric field
strength) E is the force per unit charge when placed
in the electric field.

88
 Cont …
• Thus;

• The electric field intensity E is obviously in the

direction of the force F and is measured in
newton's/coulomb or volts/meter.
• The electric field intensity at point due to a point
charge located at is readily obtained as:

89
 Cont …
• For N point charges located at the electric field
intensity at point is obtained as:

Or

90
 ELECTRIC FIELDS DUE TO CONTINUOUS
CHARGE DISTRIBUTIONS
• So far we have only considered forces and electric fields due to
point charges.
• It is also possible to have continuous charge distribution along
a line, on a surface, or in a volume as illustrated in Figure
below.
• It is customary to denote the line charge density, surface charge
density, and volume charge density by (in C/m), (in C/m2), and
(in C/m3), respectively.
• The charge element and the total charge due to these charge
distributions are obtained from Figure below as follows.
91
92
 Cont …

• The electric field intensity due to each of the charge

distributions and may be regarded as the summation of
the field contributed by the numerous point charges
making up the charge distribution.

93
 Cont …
• Thus by replacing with charge element and integrating,
we get:

• It should be noted that and vary as the integrals are

evaluated.

94
 ELECTRIC FLUX DENSITY
• The flux due to the electric field E can be calculated
using the general definition of flux.
• For practical reasons, however, this quantity is not
usually considered as the most useful flux in
electrostatics.
• Also, the above equations show that the electric field
intensity is dependent on the medium in which the
charge is placed (free space in this chapter).
• Suppose a new vector field D independent of the
medium is defined by: 95
 Cont …
• We define electric flux in terms of as:

• The vector field D is called the electric flux density

(also called electric displacement) and is measured in
coulombs per square meter.
• It is apparent that all the formulas derived for E from
Coulomb's law can be used in calculating D, except that
we have to multiply those formulas by.

96
GAUSS'S LAW—MAXWELL'S EQUATION
• Gauss's law states that the total electric flux through any
closed surface is equal to the total charge enclosed by that
surface (Integral form of the first Maxwell’s Equation).
Thus;

• That is:

Or

97
 Cont …
• By applying divergence theorem to the middle term in
above equation:

• Comparing the two volume integrals results in:

• Which is the first of the four Maxwell's equations

(differential form of Maxwell’s equation) to be derived.
• This Equation states that the volume charge density is
the same as the divergence of the electric flux density.
98
 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
• Suppose we wish to move a point charge from point to
point in an electric field as shown in Figure below.
• From Coulomb's law, the force on is:

so that the work done in displacing the charge by is:

• The negative sign indicates that the work is being done

by an external agent.
99
100
 Cont …
• Thus the total work done, or the potential energy
required, in moving from is:

• Dividing by gives the potential energy per unit charge.

• This quantity, denoted by, is known as the potential
difference between points and.
• Thus:

101
 Cont …
• If the field in Figure above is due to a point charge
located at the
origin, then:

So, we can re – write the above equation as:

102
 Cont …
Where andare the potentials (or absolute potentials) at
B and A, respectively.
• Thus the potential difference may be regarded as the
potential at B with reference to A.
• In problems involving point charges, it is customary to
choose infinity as reference; that is, we assume the
potential at infinity is zero.
• Thus if as, the potential at any point () due to a point
charge located at the origin is:
103
 Cont …
• The potential at any point is the potential difference
between that point and a chosen point an which the
potential is zero.
• In other words, by assuming zero potential at infinity,
the potential at a distance from the point charge is the
work done per unit charge by an external agent in
transferring a test charge from infinity to that point.
• Thus:

104
 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN E AND V
MAXWELL'S EQUATION
• The potential difference between points and is
independent of the path taken. Hence,

that is,

• This shows that the line integral of along a closed path

as shown in Figure below must be zero.
105
106
 Cont …
• Physically, this implies that no net work is done in
moving a charge along a closed path in an electrostatic
field.
• Applying Stokes's theorem to gives:

Or

107
 Cont …
• Any vector field that satisfies integral and differential
Maxwell’s equations given above is said to be
conservative, or irrotational.
• Thus an electrostatic field is a conservative field.
• From the way we defined potential,, it follows that:

But;

108
 Cont …
• Comparing the two expressions for, we obtain:

• Thus;

• That is, the electric field intensity is the gradient of.

• The negative sign shows that the direction of E is
opposite to the direction in which V increases; E is
directed from higher to lower levels of V.
109
 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
• If the field exists in a region consisting of two different
media, the conditions that the field must satisfy at the
interface separating the media are called boundary
conditions.
• These conditions are helpful in determining the field on
one side of the boundary if the field on the other side is
known.
• Obviously, the conditions will be dictated by the types
of material the media are made of.
110
 Cont …
• We shall consider the boundary conditions at an
interface separating:
dielectric () and dielectric ()
conductor and dielectric
conductor and free space
• To determine the boundary conditions, we need to use
Maxwell's equations:

111
 Cont …
• Also we need to decompose the electric field intensity E
into two orthogonal components:

Where and are, respectively, the tangential and normal

components of to the interface of interest.
• A similar decomposition can be done for the electric
flux density.
A. Dielectric-Dielectric Boundary Conditions
• Consider the field existing in a region consisting of two
different dielectrics characterized by and as shown
112

below.
113
 Cont …
• and in media 1 and 2, respectively, can be decomposed
as:

• We apply closed line integral to the closed path abcda

of Figure (a) above, assuming that the path is very
small with respect to the variation of.
• We obtain:

• As, the above equation becomes:

114
 Cont …
• Thus the tangential components of are the same on the
two sides of the boundary.
• In other words,, undergoes no change on the boundary
and it is said to be continuous across the boundary.
• Since, the above equation can be written as:

• That is,, undergoes some change across the interface.

• Hence, is said to be discontinuous across the interface.
115
 Cont …
• Similarly, we apply closed surface integral to the
pillbox (Gaussian surface) of Figure (b) above.
• Allowing gives:

Or

Where is the free charge density placed deliberately at

the boundary.
• If no free charges exist at the interface (i.e., charges
116

are not deliberately placed there), and the equation

 Cont …
• Thus the normal component of is continuous across the
interface; that is, undergoes no change at the
boundary.
• Since, the above equation can be written as:

• Showing that the normal component of is discontinuous

at the boundary.
• The above equations are collectively referred to as
boundary conditions; they must be satisfied by an
electric field at the boundary separating two different
117

dielectrics.
 Cont …
• As mentioned earlier, the boundary conditions are
usually applied in finding the electric field on one side
of the boundary given the field on the other side.
• Besides this, we can use the boundary conditions to
determine the "refraction" of the electric field across
the interface.
• Consider and making angles with the normal to the
interface as illustrated in Figure below.
• Using the equation: , we have:
118
119
 Cont …
• Similarly, by applying the equation, we get:

• Dividing the first equation by the second equation,

gives:

• This is the law of refraction of the electric field at a

boundary free of charge (since is assumed at the
interface).
• Thus, in general, an interface between two dielectrics
produces bending of the flux lines as a result of
120

unequal polarization charges that accumulate on the

 Cont …
B. Conductor-Dielectric Boundary Conditions:
• This is the case shown in Figure shown below.
• The conductor is assumed to be perfect (i.e., or ).
• Although such a conductor is not practically realizable,
we may regard conductors such as copper and silver as
though they were perfect conductors.

121
122
 Cont …
• To determine the boundary conditions for a conductor –
dielectric interface, we follow the same procedure used
for dielectric – dielectric interface except that we
incorporate the fact that inside the conductor.
• Applying closed line integral to the closed path abcda
of Figure (a) above gives:

• As,

123
 Cont …
• Similarly, by applying closed surface integral to the
pillbox of Figure (b) above and letting, we get:

because inside the conductor.

• The above equation may be written as:

C. Conductor-Free Space Boundary Conditions:

• This is a special case of the conductor-dielectric
conditions and is illustrated in Figure below. 124
125
 Cont …
• The boundary conditions at the interface between a
conductor and free space can be obtained from
equations:

by replacing.
• We expect the electric field E to be external to the
conductor and normal to its surface.
• Thus the boundary conditions are:

• It should be noted again that this equation implies that E

126

field must approach a conducting surface normally.

 MAGNETOSTATIC FIELDS
• In previous chapters we limited our discussions to
static electric fields characterized by E or D.
• We now focus our attention on static magnetic fields,
which are characterized by H or B.
• There are similarities and dissimilarities between
electric and magnetic fields.
• As E and D are related according to for linear material
space, H and B are related according to.
• Table shown below further shows the analogy between
electric and magnetic field quantities. 127
128
 Cont …
• A definite link between electric and magnetic fields was
established by Oersted in 1820.
• As we have noticed, an electrostatic field is produced
by static or stationary charges.
• If the charges are moving with constant velocity, a
static magnetic (or magnetostatic) field is produced.
• A magnetostatic field is produced by a constant current
flow (or direct current).
• Our study of magnetostatics is not a dispensable luxury
but an indispensable necessity. 129
 Cont …
• The development of the motors, transformers,
microphones, compasses, telephone bell ringers,
television focusing controls, advertising displays,
magnetically levitated high speed vehicles, memory
stores, magnetic separators, and so on, involve
magnetic phenomena and play an important role in our
everyday life.
• There are two major laws governing magnetostatic
fields:
1) Biot – Savart's law, and
130

2) Ampere's circuit law

 Cont …
• Just as Gauss's law is a special case of Coulomb's law,
Ampere's law is a special case of Biot – Savart's law
and is easily applied in problems involving symmetrical
current distribution.
BIOT-SAVART'S LAW:
• Biot – Savart's law: states that the magnetic field
intensity produced at a point P, as shown in Figure
below, by the differential current element is
proportional to the product and the sine of the angle
between the element and the line joining P to the
element and is inversely proportional to the square of
131

the distance between P and the element.

132
 Cont …
• That is;

Where is the constant of proportionality.

• From the definition of cross product, it is easy to notice
that:

• Thus the direction of can be determined by the right

hand rule with the right – hand thumb pointing in the
direction of the current, the right – hand fingers
encircling the wire in the direction of .
133
 Cont …
• Just as we can have different charge configurations, we
can have different current distributions (shown in
Figure below):
line current,
surface current, and
volume current
• If we define K as the surface current density (in
amperes/meter) and J as the volume current density (in
amperes/meter square), the source elements are
related as: 134
135
 Cont …
• Thus in terms of the distributed current sources, the
Biot – Savart law as becomes:

136
 AMPERE'S CIRCUIT LAW—MAXWELL'S
EQUATION
• Ampere's circuit law: states that the line integral of
the tangential component of H around a closed path is
the same as the net current enclosed by the path.
• In other words, the circulation of H equals ; that is,

• Ampere's law is similar to Gauss's law and it is easily

applied to determine H when the current distribution is
symmetrical.
• Ampere's law is a special case of Biot-Savart's law.
137
 Cont …
• It should be noted that the above equation always holds
whether the current distribution is symmetrical or not
but we can only use the equation to determine H when
symmetrical current distribution exists.
• By applying Stoke's theorem to the left – hand side of
Ampere’s law, we obtain:

But

138
 Cont …
• Comparing the surface integrals in the above two
equations, clearly revels that:

• This is the third Maxwell's equation to be derived; it is

essentially Ampere's law in differential (or point) form
whereas is the integral form.
• From , we should observe that ; that is, magnetostatic
field is not conservative.

139
 MAGNETIC FLUX DENSITY—MAXWELL'S
EQUATION
• The magnetic flux density B is similar to the electric
flux density D.
• As in free space, the magnetic flux density is related to
the magnetic field intensity according to:

Where is a constant known as the permeability of free

space.
• The magnetic flux through a surface S is given by:
140
 Cont …
• Where the magnetic fluxis in webers (Wb) and the
magnetic flux density is in webers/square meter () or
teslas.
• In an electrostatic field, the flux passing through a closed
surface is the same as the charge enclosed; that is,.
• Thus it is possible to have an isolated electric charge as
shown in Figure (a) below, which also reveals that
electric flux lines are not necessarily closed.
• Unlike electric flux lines, magnetic flux lines always close
upon themselves as in Figure (b) below.
141

• This is due to the fact that it is not possible to have

142
 Cont …
• We find it impossible to separate the north pole from
the south pole.
• An isolated magnetic charge does not exist.
• Thus the total flux through a closed surface in a
magnetic field must be zero; that is,

• This equation is referred to as the law of conservation

of magnetic flux or Gauss's law for magnetostatic fields
just as is Gauss's law for electrostatic fields.
143
 Cont …
• Although the magnetostatic field is not conservative,
magnetic flux is conserved.
• By applying the divergence theorem to the above closed
surface integral, we obtain:

• This equation is the fourth Maxwell's equation to be

derived.
• The last equations shows that magnetostatic fields have
no sources or sinks.
• suggests that magnetic field lines are always continuous.
144
 MAXWELL'S EQUATIONS FOR STATIC EM
FIELDS
• Having derived Maxwell's four equations for static
electromagnetic fields, we may take a moment to put them
together as in Table below.
• The choice between differential and integral forms of the
equations depends on a given problem.
• It is evident from Table below that a vector field is defined
completely by specifying its curl and divergence.
• A field can only be electric or magnetic if it satisfies the
corresponding Maxwell's equations.
• As will be discussed later, the divergence equations will
remain the same for time-varying EM fields but the curl 145

equations will have to be modified.

146
MAXWELL'S EQUATIONS IN FINAL FORMS
• James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879) is regarded as the
founder of electromagnetic theory in its present form.
• Maxwell's celebrated work led to the discovery of
electromagnetic waves.
• Through his theoretical efforts over about 5 years
(when he was between 35 and 40), Maxwell published
the first unified theory of electricity and magnetism.
• The theory comprised all previously known results,
both experimental and theoretical, on electricity and
magnetism. 147
 Cont …
• It further introduced displacement current and
predicted the existence of electromagnetic waves.
• Maxwell's equations were not fully accepted by many
scientists until they were later confirmed by Heinrich
Rudolf Hertz (1857-1894), a German physics professor.
• Hertz was successful in generating and detecting radio
waves.
• The laws of electromagnetism that Maxwell put
together in the form of four equations were presented
in Table above in previous Section for static 148

conditions.
 Cont …
• The more generalized forms of these equations are
those for time-varying conditions shown in Table
below.
• We notice from the table that the divergence equations
remain the same while the curl equations have been
modified.
• The integral form of Maxwell's equations depicts the
underlying physical laws, whereas the differential form
is used more frequently in solving problems.
• For a field to be "qualified" as an electromagnetic field,
149

it must satisfy all four Maxwell's equations.

150
 Cont …
• The importance of Maxwell's equations cannot be
overemphasized because they summarize all known
laws of electromagnetism.
• We shall often refer to them in the remaining part of
this text.

151
 TIME – HARMONIC FIELDS
• So far, our time dependence of EM fields has been
arbitrary.
• To be specific, we shall assume that the fields are time
harmonic.
A time-harmonic field is one that varies periodically or
sinusoidally with time.
• Not only is sinusoidal analysis of practical value, it can
be extended to most waveforms by Fourier transform
techniques.
• Sinusoids are easily expressed in phasors, which are 152

more convenient to work with.

 Cont …
• A phasor z is a complex number that can be written as:

Or

Where, is the real part of, is the imaginary part of, is the
magnitude of, given by:

And is the phase of, given by:

153
 Cont …
• The phasor z can be represented in rectangular form
as:

• or in polar form as:

• The two forms of representing z are related in

previous equations and illustrated in Figure below.
• Addition and subtraction of phasors are better
performed in rectangular form; multiplication and
division are better done in polar form.
154
155
 Cont …
• To introduce the time element, we let:

• where may be a function of time or space coordinates

or a constant.
• The real (Re) and imaginary (Im) parts of:

are, respectively, given by:

156
 Cont …
• The complex term, which results from dropping the
time factor in, is called the phasor current, denoted
by; that is,

• Where the subscript denotes the phasor form of.

• Thus , the instantaneous form, can be expressed as:

• In general, a phasor could be scalar or vector.

157
 Cont …
• If a vector is a time-harmonic field, the phasor form of
is ; the two quantities are related as:

• For example, if, we can write as:

• Comparing this with time – harmonic form of indicates

that the phasor form of is:

158
• Notice that: Cont …

Showing that taking the time derivative of the

instantaneous quantity is equivalent to multiplying its
phasor form by.
• That is,

• Similarly,

159
 Cont …
• Note that the real part is chosen in equation as in
circuit analysis; the imaginary part could equally have
been chosen.
• Also notice the basic difference between the
instantaneous form and its phasor form ; the former is
time dependent and real whereas the latter is time
invariant and generally complex.
• It is easier to work with and obtain from whenever
necessary using equation.
• We shall now apply the phasor concept to time-varying
160

EM fields.
 Cont …
• The fields quantities, , , , , and and their derivatives
can be expressed in phasor form using:

• In phasor form, Maxwell's equations for time-harmonic

EM fields in a linear, isotropic, and homogeneous
medium are presented in Table below.
• From Table below, note that the time factor disappears
because it is associated with every term and therefore
factors out, resulting in time independent equations.
161
162
 Cont …
• Herein lies the justification for using phasors; the time
factor can
be suppressed in our analysis of time-harmonic fields
and inserted when necessary.
• Also note that in Table above, the time factor has been
assumed.
• It is equally possible to have assumed the time factor ,
in which case we would need to replace every in Table
above (Time – Harmonic Maxwell’s equation) with.
163
End of Chapter One

Thank you !!!

164