UNIVERSITY OF GONDAR

COLLEGE OF INFORMATICS
DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE

Data Communication and Computer

Networking

Belayneh M.

Gondar, Ethiopia
November 2022
Chapter One: Data Communication Basics
Definition of Network
 A Network is just a combination of two or more objects to exchange or share
information.
 A computer network is a system in which a number of independent computers are
linked together to share data and peripherals, such as files and printers.
 In the modern world, computer networks have become almost indispensable.
 All major businesses, governmental and educational institutions make use of computer
networks to such an extent that it is now difficult to imagine a world without them.
 Effective and efficient data communication and networking facilities are vital to any
enterprise.
Cont…
Communication Basics
 When we communicate, we are sharing information.
 This sharing can be local or remote.
 Between individuals, local communication usually occurs face to face, while remote
communication takes place over distance.
 The term telecommunication, which includes telephony, telegraphy, and television,
means communication at a distance (tele is Greek for "far").
Cont…
The word “data” refers to information presented in whatever form is agreed upon by the
parties creating and using the data.
Data communications are the exchange of data between two devices via some form of
transmission medium such as a wire cable.
For data communications to occur, the communicating devices must be part of a
communication system made up of a combination of hardware (physical equipment) and
software (programs).
Cont…
 Effectiveness data communications system depends on four fundamental characteristics:
delivery, accuracy, timeliness, and jitter.
 Delivery: The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data must be received by
the intended device or user and only by that device or user.
 Accuracy: The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that have been altered in
transmission and left uncorrected are unusable.
 Timeliness: The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data delivered late are
useless. In the case of video and audio, timely delivery means delivering data as they are
produced, in the same order that they are produced, and without significant delay. This kind
of delivery is called real-time transmission.
Cont…
 Jitter: Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time.
 It is the uneven delay in the delivery of audio or video packets.
 For example, let us assume that video packets are sent every 3D-ms.
 If some of the packets arrive with 3D-ms delay and others with 4D-ms delay, an
uneven quality in the video is the result.
Components Communications
A data communications system has five components
Cont…
 Message: The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular forms
of information include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.
 Sender: The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset, video camera, and so on.
 Receiver. The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset, television, and so on.
 Transmission Medium: The transmission medium is the physical path by which a
message travels from sender to receiver.
 Some examples of transmission media include twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-
optic cable, and radio waves.
Cont…
 Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications.
 It represents an agreement between the communicating devices.
 Without a protocol, two devices may be connected but not communicating, just
as a person speaking French cannot be understood by a person who speaks only
Japanese.
Communication between two devices can be simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex depending on
the channel capabilities as shown in following Figure.
Cont…
Cont…
Simplex
 In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only one
of the two devices on a link can transmit; the other can only receive (see the above
figure).
 The device can either send or receive signal but not do both.
 Keyboards and traditional monitors are examples of simplex devices.
 The keyboard can only introduce input; the monitor can only accept output.
 The simplex mode can use the entire capacity of the channel to send data in one
direction.
Cont…
Half-Duplex
In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time.
 When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa (see the above
figure).
 The half-duplex mode is like a one-lane road with traffic allowed in both directions.
 When cars are traveling in one direction, cars going the other way must wait.
 In a half-duplex transmission, the entire capacity of a channel is taken over by
whichever of the two devices is transmitting at the time.
 Walkie-talkies and CB (citizens band) radios are both half-duplex systems.
Cont…
Full-Duplex
o In full-duplex mode (also called duplex), both stations can transmit and receive
simultaneously (See the above figure).
o The full-duplex mode is like a two-way street with traffic flowing in both directions at
the same time.
o In full-duplex mode, signals going in one direction share the capacity of the link: with
signals going in the other direction.
o This sharing can occur in two ways: Either the link must contain two physically separate
transmission paths, one for sending and the other for receiving; or the capacity of the
channel is divided between signals traveling in both directions.
Cont…
 One common example of full-duplex communication is the telephone network. When
two people are communicating by a telephone line, both can talk and listen at the same
time.
 The full-duplex mode is used when communication in both directions is required all the
time. The capacity of the channel, however, must be divided between the two directions
Data Representation Techniques

o Information today comes in different forms such as text, numbers, images, audio, and
video.
o In general, information today comes in different forms such as text, numbers, images,
audio and video. In data communications, text is represented as a bit pattern.
o A code such as ASCII is used to represent text.
o The Text is converted into a sequence of Zero’s and One’s.
o Numbers are also represented by bit patterns.
o However, a code such as ASCII is used to represent numbers. The number is directly
converted to a binary number to simplify mathematical operations. Images are also
represented by bit pattern.
Data Representation Techniques

 The size and the value of the pattern depend on the image.
 Audio is by nature different from test, numbers or images.
 It is continuous, not discrete.
 Video can either be produced as a continuous entity (like a TV Camera). or it can be a
combination of images, each a discrete entity, arranged to convey the idea of motion.
 Analog video can be changed to digital video.
Synchronous and Asynchronous Data Transmission

Synchronous
 In Synchronous Transmission, data is sent in form of blocks or frames.
 This transmission is the full-duplex type.
 Between sender and receiver, synchronization is compulsory.
 In Synchronous transmission, There is no gap present between data.
 It is more efficient and more reliable than asynchronous transmission to transfer a large
amount of data.
Example: Chat Rooms, Telephonic Conversations, Video Conferencing
Synchronous and Asynchronous Data Transmission

Asynchronous
 In Asynchronous Transmission, data is sent in form of byte or character.
 This transmission is the half-duplex type transmission.
 In this transmission start bits and stop bits are added with data.
 It does not require synchronization. E.g, Email, Forums, Letters
Transmission Impairments

o With any communications system, the signal that is received may differ from the signal
that is transmitted due to various transmission impairments.
o For analog signals, these impairments can degrade the signal quality.
o For digital signals, bit errors may be introduced, such that a binary 1 is transformed into
a binary 0 or vice versa.
The most significant impairments are:
Transmission Impairments

Attenuation
o It means loss of energy.
o The strength of signal decreases with increasing distance which causes loss of energy in
overcoming resistance of medium.
o This is also known as attenuated signal.
o Amplifiers are used to amplify the attenuated signal which gives the original signal back
and compensate for this loss.
Transmission Impairments

Distortion
o It means changes in the form or shape of the signal.
o This is generally seen in composite signals made up with different frequencies.
o Composite signals: a combination of two or more simple sine waves with different
frequency, phase and amplitude.
o Each frequency component has its own propagation speed travelling through a medium.
o And that is why it delay in arriving at the final destination Every component arrive at
different time which leads to distortion.
o Therefore, they have different phases at receiver end from what they had at senders
end.
Transmission Impairments

Noise
o The random or unwanted signal that mixes up with the original signal is called noise.
o There are several types of noise such as induced noise, crosstalk noise, thermal noise
and impulse noise which may corrupt the signal.
o Induced noise comes from sources such as motors and appliances. These devices act as
sending antenna and transmission medium act as receiving antenna.
o Thermal noise is movement of electrons in wire which creates an extra signal.
o Crosstalk noise is when one wire affects the other wire.
o Impulse noise is a signal with high energy that comes from lightning or power lines
Transmission Impairments

Noise
o The random or unwanted signal that mixes up with the original signal is called noise.
o There are several types of noise such as induced noise, crosstalk noise, thermal noise
and impulse noise which may corrupt the signal.
o Induced noise comes from sources such as motors and appliances.
 These devices act as sending antenna and transmission medium act as receiving
antenna.
 Can be reduced by shielding the cables, using twisted pair and proper grounding.
o Thermal noise is movement of electrons in wire which creates an extra signal.
 Generated by the random motion of electrons in a wire.
Transmission Impairments

 Present in electrical equipment's and proportional to the temperature of the wire.

 Elimination of thermal noise is impossible in reality; however, reducing the
temperature or resistance in electrical circuits can reduce the thermal noise.
o Crosstalk noise is when one wire affects the other wire.
 Twisted pair cable, shielded cable and keeping cables further apart helps to prevent
from crosstalk.
o Impulse noise is a signal with high energy (Spikes) that comes from lightning or power
lines.
 It increases or decreases a circuits signal level and this causes the receiving
equipment to misinterpret the signal.
Transmission Impairments

 The ratio of the average signal power to the average noise power is called Signal-to-
Noise Ratio (SNR).
o High SNR means the signal is less corrupted by noise.
o Low SNR means the signal is more corrupted by noise.

Assignment: Signal Encoding Techniques???

Analog data to Analog signals?
Analog data to Digital signals?
Digital data to Analog signals?
Digital data to Digital signals?
Signal Encoding Techniques

 There are four possible combinations of encoding techniques

1. Digital data to Digital signals
 It is the simplest form of digital encoding of digital data.
 Binary data are transmitted by encoding each data bit into signal elements.
 The conversion involves three techniques: line coding, block coding, and scrambling.
 Line coding is always needed; block coding and scrambling may or may not be needed.
Line Coding
 Line coding is the process of converting digital data to digital signals.
 We assume that data, in the form of text, numbers, graphical images, audio, or video, are
stored in computer memory as sequences of bits.
Signal Encoding Techniques

 Line coding converts a sequence of bits to a digital signal.

 At the sender, digital data are encoded into a digital signal; at the receiver, the digital
data are recreated by decoding the digital signal.
Signal Encoding Techniques

• Because of noise and other impairments, there will be errors.

• These three factors are important, the signal-to-noise ratio, the data rate, and the
bandwidth.
• With other factors held constant, the following statements are true:
 An increase in data rate increases bit error rate (BER).
 An increase in SNR decreases bit error rate.
 An increase in bandwidth allows an increase in data rate.
2. Digital data to analog signal
• It is the transmission of digital data with analog signals.
Signal Encoding Techniques

• A modem converts digital data to an analog signal so that it can be transmitted over an
analog.
Example: Public telephone system (PSTN)
o Voice frequency range of 300Hz to 3400Hz
o Digital devices are attached to the network via a modem (modulator-demodulator),
which converts digital data to analog signals and vice-versa.
Signal Encoding Techniques

• Modulation is about changing a signal, whereas encoding is about representing a signal.

• Encoding is about converting digital or analog data to digital signal, whereas
modulation is about converting digital or analog data to an analog signal.
3. Analog data, digital signal
• Analog data, such as voice and video, is often digitized to be able to use digital
transmission facilities.
• Strictly speaking, it might be more correct to refer to this as a process of converting
analog data into digital data; this process is known as digitization.
Signal Encoding Techniques

4. Analog data to analog signal

• Analog data can be modulated by a carrier frequency to produce an analog signal in a
different frequency band, which can be utilized on an analog transmission system.
• The basic techniques are amplitude modulation (AM), frequency modulation (FM), and
phase modulation (PM).
• Amplitude- distance between the resting position and the maximum displacement of
the wave.
• Frequency- number of waves passing by a specific point per second.
Data Transmission Error Detection and Correction

Data Transmission Error Detection and Correction

Data that is either transmitted over communication channel (e.g. bus) or stored in memory
is not completely error free.
Data can be corrupted during transmission. Some applications require that errors be
detected and corrected.
Errors can cause by:
1. Transmission Errors
• Signal distortion or attenuation
• E.g. sender and receiver out of sync, can happen if clocks are not synchronized –
systems distributed over network
Data Transmission Error Detection and Correction

2. Storage Errors
• DRAM memory cell contents can change spuriously due to some electromagnetic
interference
• In magnetic storage devices such as disks, magnetic flux density increases could
cause one or more bits to flip (change that value)
Error Detection and Correction
• Networks must be able to transfer data from one device to another with acceptable
accuracy.
• For most applications, a system must guarantee that the data received are identical to
the data transmitted.
Data Transmission Error Detection and Correction

• Any time data are transmitted from one node to the next, they can become corrupted in
passage.
• Many factors can alter one or more bits of a message.
• Some applications require a mechanism for detecting and correcting errors.
Types of Errors
• Whenever bits flow from one point to another, they are subject to unpredictable
changes because of interference. This interference can change the shape of the signal.
Single-Bit-Error
• The term single-bit error means that only 1 bit of a given data unit (such as a byte,
character, or packet) is changed from 1 to 0 or from 0 to 1.
Data Transmission Error Detection and Correction

• Single-bit errors are the least likely type of error in serial data transmission.
Burst Error
The term burst error means that 2 or more bits in the data unit have changed from 1 to 0
or from 0 to 1.

• A burst error is more likely to occur than a single-bit error.

• The duration of noise is normally longer than the duration of 1 bit, which means that
when noise affects data, it affects a set of bits.
Data Transmission Error Detection and Correction

Detection versus Correction

o The correction of errors is more difficult than the detection. In error detection, we are
looking only to see if any error has occurred. The answer is a simple yes or no.
o We are not even interested in the number of errors. A single-bit error is the same for us
as a burst error.
o In error correction, we need to know the exact number of bits that are corrupted and
more importantly, their location in the message.
o The number of the errors and the size of the message are important factors.
o If we need to correct one single error in an 8-bit data unit, we need to consider eight
possible error locations.
Data Transmission Error Detection and Correction

Forward Error Correction versus Retransmission

 There are two main methods of error correction.
 Forward error correction is the process in which the receiver tries to guess the message
by using redundant bits.
 This is possible, if the number of errors is small.
 Correction by retransmission is a technique in which the receiver detects the
occurrence of an error and asks the sender to resend the message.
 Resending is repeated until a message arrives that the receiver believes is error-free
(usually, not all errors can be detected).
Data Transmission Error Detection and Correction

Redundancy
• The central concept in detecting or correcting errors is redundancy.
• To be able to detect or correct errors, we need to send some extra bits with our data.
• These redundant bits are added by the sender and removed by the receiver.
• Their presence allows the receiver to detect or correct corrupted bits.

• In the simplest system to visualize, the redundancy takes the form of transmitting the
information twice and comparing the two sets of data to see that they are the same.
Data Transmission Error Detection and Correction

Redundancy
• Statistically, it is very unlikely that a random error will occur a second time at the same
place in the data.

• If a discrepancy is noted between the two sets of data, an error is assumed and the data
is caused to be re-transmitted. When two sets of data agree, error-free transmission is
assumed.
DATA RATE LIMITS

• A very important consideration in data communications is how fast we can send data, in
bits per second.
• Over a channel, data rate depends on three factors:
o The bandwidth available
o The level of the signals we use
o The quality of the channel (the level of noise)
Chapter Two: Transmission Medium
o A transmission medium in computer networks is a communication channel between
sender and receiver and it is used to transfer data from one network to another.
o When two or more computers are interconnected through a medium to exchange
messages or information, then the medium is known as a transmission medium in
computer networks.
o The transmission medium is also called transmission media.
o The transmission medium is a media between interconnected devices.
o Different types of transmission media have unique properties and are used for
different purposes.
Transmission Medium
Factors to be considered while selecting a Transmission Medium

o Transmission Rate

o Cost and Ease of Installation

o Resistance to Environmental Conditions like EMI

o EMI- Electrical Noise

o Distances
Chapter 2: Transmission Medium
1. Guided transmission media
 Twisted pair
 Coaxial cable
 Fiber optics
2. Unguided transmission media
 Microwave (Terrestrial Microwave)
 Satellite Microwave
 Broadcast radio
 Infrared
Transmission Medium
Guided Media
• It is defined as the physical medium through which the signals are transmitted.
• It is also known as Bounded media and wired media.

Types:
• Twisted pair cable
• Coaxial cable
• Fiber optics cable
Twisted Pair
Twisted Pair Cable
o It was invented by Alexander Graham Bell.
o Consists of two insulated copper wires twisted around each other.
o Twisted pair cables have two conductors that are generally made up of copper and
each conductor has insulation.
o These two conductors are twisted together, thus giving the name twisted pair
cables.
o Uses RJ-45 connectors.
Twisted Pair
 Generally inexpensive.
 Easy to install.

 There are two types.

1. STP
2. UTP
Unshielded Twisted Pair
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
These are a pair of two insulated copper wires twisted together without any other
insulation or shielding and hence are called unshielded twisted pair cables.
Maximum cable length is 100 meters or 328 feet
 Types of UTP cables
 Cat 1: Its bandwidth is very low & the data transmission rate 100 kbps. It is used
for carrying Analog Signals. It is used in Telephone.
 Cat 2: Its bandwidth is less than 2 MHz and carries signals at the rate of 2
Mbps. It can take Analog as well as Digital Signals.
 Category 3 and above is needed for Ethernet networks.
Unshielded Twisted Pair
Category3 − Its bandwidth is 2 to 10 MHz. It carries data at the rate of 10 Mbps. It
can take digital lines. It is used in LANs.
Category4 − Its bandwidth is 10 MHz to 20 MHz. It transmits data at a rate of 20
Mbps. It can carry digital signals. It is used in LANs.
Category5 − Its bandwidth is 100 MHz. It can carry information at a rate of 100 Mbps.
It can carry digital signals used for LANs.
Category6 − Its bandwidth is 200 MHz. It can carry information at a rate of 200 Mbps.
It is used for digital signal propagation in LANs.
Category7 − Its bandwidth is 600 MHz. It can carry information at a rate of 600 Mbps.
It is used for carrying digital signals is LANs.
Unshielded Twisted Pair
 The advantage of UTP is a low cost, very simple to install, and high speed.
 The disadvantages of UTP is liable to exterior interference, transmits in fewer
distances, and less capacity.

Unshielded Twisted Pair

Shielded Twisted Pair
STP (Shielded Twisted Pair)
 In this, each insulated twisted pair are shielded by a metal foil or braided mesh. This mesh
is also known as a metal shield
 Much less susceptible to interference and supports higher transmission rates than
UTP.
 Shielding makes it somewhat harder to install.
 STP cable includes a particular jacket for blocking outside interference.
 The main advantages of STP cable mainly include good speed, removes crosstalk.
 The main disadvantages are hard to manufacture as well as install.
Twisted Pair

Shielded Twisted Pair

Shielded Twisted Pair
STP (Shielded Twisted Pair)
 In this, each insulated twisted pair are shielded by a metal foil or braided mesh.
This mesh is also known as a metal shield.
 Much less susceptible to interference and supports higher transmission rates than
UTP.
 Shielding makes it somewhat harder to install.
 STP cable includes a particular jacket for blocking outside interference.
 The main advantages of STP cable mainly include good speed, removes crosstalk.
 The main disadvantages are hard to manufacture as well as install.
Coaxial Cable
Coaxial Cable
 Coaxial cable is a type of cable that has an inner conductor surrounded by an insulating
layer, surrounded by conductive shielding (outer conductor), and a protective outer jacket.
 This cable is used to transmit data in two modes like baseband mode as well as
broadband mode.
 Braided shield prevents noise and crosstalk. (Crosstalk is a signal overflow from an
adjacent wire.)
 This cable is widely used in cable TVs & analog TV networks.
Coaxial Cable
 The advantages of the coaxial cable include high bandwidth, noise immunity is
good, low cost and simple to install.
 More resistant to interference and attenuation than twisted pair cabling.
(Attenuation is the loss of signal strength)
 Can transmit data, voice and video.
 Offers moderate security ----> better than UTP/STP.
Coaxial Cable
o To connect coaxial cable to devices, we need coaxial connectors. The most
common type of connector used today is the Bayonet Neill-Concelman (BNC)
connector.
o The BNC connector is used to connect the end of the cable to the device, such as
a TV set.
There are two types of coaxial cable:
1. Thin (thinnet) cable
2. Thick (ticknet) cable
Coaxial Cable
Thinnet
 flexible coaxial cable
 0.25" (0.64 centimeters) thick.
 Can carry signals 185 meters or 607 feet.
Thicknet
 0.5" (1.27centimeters) thick
 Can carry signals 500 meters or 1640 feet.
 Much less flexible and far more bulky and harder to install than thinnet
 Better resistance to electrical interference than thinnet.
 More expensive and better security than thinnet .
Fiber Optics
Optical Fiber Cable
 This cable uses the notion of light reflected through a core that is made with plastic
or glass.
 The core is enclosed with less thick plastic or glass and it is known as the cladding.
 Used for large volume data transmission.
 The main advantages of this cable include lightweight, capacity & bandwidth will be
increased, signal attenuation is less, etc.
 The disadvantages are high cost, fragile, installation & maintenance is difficult and
unidirectional.
Fiber Optics
 Good for very high speed, long distance data transmission.
 Transmits digital signals using light pulses rather than electricity, it is immune to
Interference.
Comparisons
Comparisons
Comparisons
Comparisons
Unguided Medium
Unguided Media
 It doesn’t require any physical medium to transmit electromagnetic signals.
 For unguided media, transmission and reception are achieved by means of an
antenna.
 For transmission, the antenna radiates electromagnetic energy into the medium
(usually air), and for reception, the antenna picks up electromagnetic waves from
the surrounding medium.
 There are basically two types of configurations for wireless transmission:
directional and omnidirectional.
Unguided Medium
 For the directional configuration, the transmitting antenna puts out a focused
electromagnetic beam; the transmitting and receiving antennas must therefore be
carefully aligned.
 In the omnidirectional case, the transmitted signal spreads out in all directions and
can be received by many antennas.
 The main features of this media are less secure, the signal can be transmitted
through air, and applicable for large distances.
There are three types of unguided media.
 Radio waves, Microwaves and Infrared Waves
Unguided Medium
Radio Wave
 Radio waves are the electromagnetic waves that are transmitted in all the
directions of free space.
 It is omnidirectional, i.e., the signals are propagated in all the directions.
 The range in frequencies of radio waves is from 3Khz to 1 khz.
 In the case of radio waves, the sending and receiving antenna are not aligned, i.e.,
the wave sent by the sending antenna can be received by any receiving antenna.
 It is useful for multicasting when there is one sender and many receivers.
 Cover a large area, and they can penetrate the walls and higher transmission rate.
 An example of the radio wave is FM radio, and Television.
Unguided Medium
Advantages Of Radio transmission:

 Radio transmission is mainly used for wide area networks.

 Radio waves cover a large area, and they can penetrate the walls.

 Radio transmission provides a higher transmission rate.

Unguided Medium
Microwaves
• The electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are known
as a microwave.
• Microwave systems use very high-frequency radio or television signals to transmit
data through space.
• Microwave systems can carry large quantities of data at high rates of speed.
• The data transmission rate is about 16 gps (Gigabits per second).
Unguided Medium
o Microwaves are unidirectional.
o When an antenna sends microwaves, it can narrowly focus it.
o This defines that the sending and receiving antennas require to be aligned.
o Microwaves propagation is line-of-sight.
o Line-of-Sight (LoS) propagation is a characteristic of electromagnetic radiation in
which two stations can only transmit and receive data signals when they’re in direct
view of each other with no obstacles in between.
o It is very high –frequency microwaves cannot penetrate walls.
Unguided Medium
Microwaves are of two types:
 Terrestrial microwave
 Satellite microwave communication.
Terrestrial Microwave Transmission: transmits the focused beam of a radio signal
from one ground-based microwave transmission antenna to another.
• Microwaves are unidirectional as the sending and receiving antenna is to be
aligned, i.e., the waves sent by the sending antenna are narrowly focused.
Unguided Medium
 Need directional parabolic antennas to broadcast and receive.
 A point-to-point communication system between terrestrial towers
Satellite Microwave Communication
 A satellite is a physical object that revolves around the earth at a known height.
 Need satellite devices which are in the geostationary orbit which is 36000 km
above the earth.
 We can communicate with any point on the globe by using satellite communication.
Unguided Medium
What is the difference between terrestrial microwave and satellite microwave?

o Terrestrial microwave transmissions are sent between two microwave stations on

the earth (earth station). => Receiver should be focused.

o It is the most common form of long-distance telephone service.

o Satellite microwave transmissions involve sending microwave transmissions

between two or more earth-based microwave stations and a satellite.

Unguided Medium
Infrared
 An infrared transmission is a wireless technology used for communication over
short ranges.
 The frequency of the infrared in the range from 300 GHz to 400 THz.
 It is used for short-range communication such as data transfer between two cell
phones (using Bluetooth and other sharing materials), TV remote operation, data
transfer between a computer and cell phone resides in the same or closed area.
Chapter Three: Computer Network
What is a computer network?
 A computer network is a system in which a number of independent computers are
linked together to share data and peripherals, such as files and printers.
 In the modern world, computer networks have become almost indispensable.
 All major businesses and governmental and educational institutions make use of
computer networks to such an extent that it is now difficult to imagine a world
without them.
Chapter Three: Computer Network
o The reason for the popularity of computer networks is that they offer many
advantages.
o Information such as important files, video and audio, and email can be easily
shared between users.
o Peripherals such as printers and modems can also be shared over the network.
o By connecting many computers to a print server any of them may make use of the
printer directly, instead of the single computer in the stand-alone environment.
o Also, software such as word-processors and spreadsheets can be made available
to all computers on the network from a single central server.
Chapter Three: Computer Network
o However, with these advantages come a number of potential disadvantages.
o Making important and sensitive information available to every user of the network
is not normally desirable.
o For example, information about employees’ salaries should not be freely available
for anybody to look at.
o Data security is therefore an important concern in a networked environment.
o Secondly, the danger of computer viruses entering the network is greatly
increased.
o A virus can infect the any of the computers on the network, and can quickly spread
throughout the network causing significant damage.
Chapter Three: Computer Network
Advantage of Computer Network
Increased storage capacity: You will be able to access files and multimedia, such as music and
images, which are stored remotely on another computer or network-attached storage.
Higher information security: As a result of granting authorization to computers, computer
networks can provide a sense of security. Most of the time, authorization is done using a user
ID and password. Thus, it ensures that someone can only log in if their information matches
details in the database.
Easy sharing of files: The data you store on other devices can be shared with other users and
accessed remotely if they are connected.
Faster resources sharing: You can also save money by using networked resources like
printers, scanners, copiers, etc. or by sharing software among multiple users.
Enhanced data reliability: There is no question that the information contained in the central
server is more reliable. It is also possible to access similar kinds of data by using another
computer if the information on one PC happens to be lost for any reason. Thus, there are no
disruptions in the office environment, leading to a smooth operation.
Chapter Three: Computer Network
Improved communication: Customers, suppliers and the staff can easily share information
and contact one another via email, chat or calls made over the network.
Better collaboration: Collaboration in the business world is made easier with the use of
computers and a computer network. All these tasks can be performed comfortably, whether
it’s connecting teams, arranging social gatherings, or acquiring personal responses.
Higher connectivity: It allows individuals to stay connected no matter where they are. With
the advent of video calling apps and Google documents, we can see live examples of how we
can connect with our friends and colleagues in these testing times.
Enhanced flexibility: Computer networks are flexible for several reasons. They provide users
with the opportunity to explore anything they need to know.
Reliability: Computer networking ensures information backup for uninterrupted functioning.
So, you need not worry about device and equipment crash anymore.
Chapter Three: Computer Network
Disadvantage
o Network Setup Costs
o Malware Infection
o Security of Computers-hacking and unauthorized access
o Issues with Independent Usage
o Expert Assistance is Required
o Health Issues
Chapter Three: Computer Network
Types of computer network
Based on their geographical limitation, there are mainly three types of computer
network.
o Personal Area Network (PAN)
o Local Area Network (LAN)
o Metropolitan Area Network (AAN)
o Wide Area Network (WAN)
Based on their geographical limitation, there are two types of computer network.
o Peer-to-peer Architecture
o Client/server Architecture
Chapter Three: Computer Network
Based on their geographical limitation, there are mainly three types of computer
network.
1. Personal Area Network (PAN)
 A PAN is smallest network which is very personal to a user.
 This may include Bluetooth enabled devices or infra-red enabled devices.
 PAN has connectivity range up to 10 meters.
 PAN may include wireless computer keyboard and mouse, Bluetooth enabled
headphones, wireless printers, and TV remotes.
 For example, Piconet is Bluetooth-enabled Personal Area Network which may
contain up to 8 devices connected together in a master-slave fashion.
Chapter Three: Computer Network
Based on their geographical limitation, there are mainly three types of computer
network.
2. Local Area Network (LAN)- Ethernet
 Local area networks, generally called LANs, are privately-owned networks within a
single building or campus of up to a few kilometers in size.
 They are widely used to connect personal computers and workstations in company
offices and factories to share resources (e.g., printers) and exchange information.
 LANs are restricted in size, which means that the worst-case transmission time is
bounded and known in advance.
Chapter Three: Computer Network
 Knowing this bound makes it possible to use certain kinds of designs that would
not otherwise be possible.
 It also simplifies network management.
 LANs may use a transmission technology consisting of a cable to which all the
machines are attached, like the telephone company party lines once used in rural
areas.
 Traditional LANs run at speeds of 10 Mbps to 100 Mbps, have low delay
(microseconds or nanoseconds), and make very few errors.
 Newer LANs operate at up to 10 Gbps.
Chapter Three: Computer Network
Based on their geographical limitation, there are mainly three types of computer
network.
3. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
 covers a larger area than that of a LAN and smaller area as compared to WAN.
 It connects two or more computers that are apart but resides in the same or
different cities.
 It covers a large geographical area and may serve as an ISP (Internet Service
Provider).
 It’s hard to design and maintain a Metropolitan Area Network.
 It is costly and may or may not be owned by a single organization.
Chapter Three: Computer Network
3. Wide Area Network (WAN) - Internet
• A wide area network, or WAN, spans a large geographical area, often a country or
continent. It contains a collection of machines intended for running user (i.e.,
application) programs. These machines are called as hosts.
• The hosts are connected by a communication sub-net, or just sub-net for short.
• The hosts are owned by the customers (e.g., people's personal computers),
whereas the communication sub-net is typically owned and operated by a
telephone company or ISP.
• The job of the sub-net is to carry messages from host to host, just as the telephone
system carries words from speaker to listener.
Computer Network-Basic Concepts
Wide Area Network (LAN)
 Unlike LAN, WAN uses switching that allows multiple computers to connect with
several switches instead of connecting with each other.
 It also uses the store-and-forward concept to transmit packets, where packets
are stored in a buffer on a temporary basis then forwarded to the destination by
following the predefined path.
Key Differences Between LAN, MAN and WAN
 The geographical area covered by LAN is small, whereas, MAN covers relatively
large and WAN covers the greatest of all.
Computer Network-Basic Concepts
 LAN is confined to schools, hospitals or buildings, whereas, MAN connects small
towns or Cities and on the other hand, WAN covers Country or a group of
Countries.
 LAN’s transmit data at a faster rate than MAN and WAN.
 Maintenance of LAN is easier than that of MAN and WAN.
 The bandwidth available for transmission is higher in LAN than MAN and WAN.
 Data transmission errors and noise are least in LAN, moderate in MAN and high in
WAN.
 Propagation delay is one of the biggest problems in WAN.
Chapter Three: Computer Network
Network Architecture
 All networks have certain components, functions and features in common, shown
in Figure 4. These include:
 Servers - computers that provide shared resources for network users
 Clients - computers that access shared resources provided by servers
 Media - the medium that make the physical connections
 Shared data - files provided to clients by servers across the network
 Shared peripherals - additional hardware resources provided by servers
Chapter Three: Computer Network
Based on their configuration architecture, there are two types of computer network.
1. Peer-to-Peer Network Architecture
o In a peer-to-peer network, there are no dedicated servers, and there is no
hierarchy among the computers.
o All the computers are equal and therefore are known as peers.
o Each computer functions as both a client and a server, and there is no
administrator responsible for the entire network.
o The user at each computer determines what data on that computer is shared on
the network. Peer-to-peer networks are also sometimes called workgroups.
Chapter Three: Computer Network

o Peer-to-peer networks are relatively simple.

o Because each computer functions as a client and a server, there is no need for a
powerful central server or for the other components required for a high-capacity
network.
o Peer-to-peer networks can be less expensive than server-based networks.
o Also, the networking software does not require the same standard of performance
and level of security as the networking software designed for dedicated servers.
Chapter Three: Computer Network
In typical environments, a peer-to-peer implementation offers the ff advantages.
• Computers are located at users' desks
• Users act as their own administrators and plan their own security
• They are cheap and easy to set up and administer for small groups of users
Peer-to-peer networks are good choices for environments where:
 There are 10 users or fewer
 Users share resources, such as printers, but no specialized servers exist
 Security is not an issue
 The organization will experience only limited growth within the foreseeable future.
Where these factors apply, a peer-to-peer network will probably be a better choice.
Chapter Three: Computer Network
2. Client-Server Network Architecture
• In an environment with more than 10 users, a peer-to-peer network - with
computers acting as both servers and clients - will probably not be adequate.
• Therefore, networks have dedicated servers.
• A dedicated server is one that functions only as a server and is not used as a client
or workstation.
• Server-based networks have become the standard models for networking.
Chapter Three: Computer Network
o As networks increase in size (as the number of connected computers, and the
physical distance and traffic between them, grows), more than one server is usually
needed.
o Spreading the networking tasks among several servers ensures that each task will
be performed as efficiently as possible.
o Servers must perform varied and complex tasks.
o Servers for large networks have become specialized to accommodate the
expanding needs of users.
o For example, a network may have separate servers for file storage, printing, email
and for storing and running application software.
Computer Network: Network Architecture
Servers may be classified as:
 File Servers - offer services that allow network users to share files and provide
central file management services (such as backups).
 Print Servers - manage and control printing, allowing users to share printers.
 Application Servers - allow client machines to access and use extra computing
power and expensive software applications that reside on the server.
 Message Servers - data can pass between users on a network in the form of
graphics, digital video or audio, as well as text and binary data. Eg. e-mail servers.
 Database Servers -provide a network with powerful database capabilities that are
available for use on relatively weaker client machines.
Chapter Three: Computer Network
o Although it is more complex to install, configure, and manage, a server-based
network has many advantages over a simple peer-to-peer network.
o Server-based data sharing can be centrally administered and controlled. Because
these shared resources are centrally located.
o Security is often the primary reason for choosing a server-based approach to
networking.
o Backups can be scheduled several times a day or once a week depending on the
importance and value of the data.
o A server-based network can support thousands of users. This type of network
would be impossible to manage as a peer-to-peer network.
Chapter Three: Computer Network
Network Topology
What is a topology?
• The term topology, or more specifically, network topology, refers to the
arrangement or physical layout of computers, cables, and other components on the
network.
• "Topology" is the standard term that most network professionals use when they
refer to the network's basic design.
• For example, a particular topology can determine not only the type of cable used
but also how the cabling runs through floors, ceilings, and walls.
• Topology can also determine how computers communicate on the network.
Chapter Three: Computer Network
A network's topology affects its capabilities.
The choice of one topology over another will have an impact on the:

• Type of equipment that the network needs

• Capabilities of the network

• Growth of the network

• Way the network is managed

Chapter Three: Computer Network
Chapter Three: Computer Network
There are many types of network topology.
1. Bus Topology
• The bus topology is often referred to as a "linear bus" because the computers
are connected in a straight line.
• This is the simplest and most common method of networking computers. Figure 1
shows a typical bus topology.
• It consists of a single cable called a trunk (also called a backbone or segment) that
connects all of the computers in the network in a single line.
Chapter Three: Computer Network
 Computers on a bus topology network communicate by addressing data to a

particular computer and sending out that data on the cable as electronic signals.

 To understand how computers communicate on a bus, you need to be familiar with

three concepts:

 Sending the signal

 Signal bounce

 Terminator
Chapter Three: Computer Network
Sending the signal
 When sending a signal from one computer on the network to another, network data
in the form of electronic signals is in fact sent to all the computers on the network.
 However, only the computer whose address matches the address encoded in the
original signal accepts the information.
 All other computers reject the data.
 Because only one computer at a time can send data on a bus network, the number
of computers attached to the bus will affect network performance.
Chapter Three: Computer Network
 The more computers there are on a bus, the more computers will be waiting to put
data on the bus and, consequently, the slower the network will be.
 Computers on a bus either transmit data to other computers on the network or
listen for data from other computers on the network.
 They are not responsible for moving data from one computer to the next.
 Consequently, if one computer fails, it does not affect the rest of the network.
Chapter Three: Computer Network
Signal bounce
Because the data, or electronic signal, is sent to the entire network, it travels from
one end of the cable to the other. If the signal is allowed to continue uninterrupted, it
will keep bouncing back and forth along the cable and prevent other computers from
sending signals. Therefore, the signal must be stopped after it has had a chance to
reach the proper destination address.
Terminator
o To stop the signal from bouncing, a component called a terminator is placed at
each end of the cable to absorb free signals.
Chapter Three: Computer Network
o Absorbing the signal clears the cable so that other computers can send data.
o In a bus topology, if a break in the cable occurs the two ends of the cable at the
break will not have terminators, so the signal will bounce, and all network activity
will stop.
o This is one of several possible reasons why a network will go "down."
o The computers on the network will still be able to function as stand-alone
computers; however, as long as the segment is broken, they will not be able to
communicate with each other or otherwise access shared resources.
Chapter Three: Computer Network
o Absorbing the signal clears the cable so that other computers can send data.
o In a bus topology, if a break in the cable occurs the two ends of the cable at the
break will not have terminators, so the signal will bounce, and all network activity
will stop.
o This is one of several possible reasons why a network will go "down."
o The computers on the network will still be able to function as stand-alone
computers; however, as long as the segment is broken, they will not be able to
communicate with each other or otherwise access shared resources.
Chapter Three: Computer Network
Advantage
o Easy of installation
o Less cable used
Disadvantage
o The failure of Trunk disables the entire network
o Difficult to scale up
Chapter Three: Computer Network
2. RING Topology
o In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection with only
the two devices on either side of it.
o A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from device to device, until it
reaches its destination.
o Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater.
o When a device receives a signal intended for another device, its repeater
regenerates the bits and passes them along.
Chapter Three: Computer Network
Advantages
 A ring is relatively easy to install and reconfigure.
 Each device is linked to only its immediate neighbors (either physically or logically).
 To add or delete a device requires changing only two connections (maximum ring
length and number of devices).
 Collision is reduced than bus since the data flow is in one direction
 In addition, fault isolation is simplified.
Disadvantages
• Unidirectional traffic can be a disadvantage.
• In a simple ring, a break in the ring can disable the entire network.
Chapter Three: Computer Network
3. Star Topology
 In a star topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a central
controller, usually called a hub.
 The devices are not directly linked to one another.
 Unlike a mesh topology, a star topology does not allow direct traffic between
devices.
 The controller acts as an exchange: If one device wants to send data to another, it
sends the data to the controller, which then relays the data to the other connected
device .
Chapter Three: Computer Network
Advantages:
1. A star topology is less expensive than a mesh topology.
2. Easy to install and reconfigure.
3. Far less cabling needs to be housed, and additions, moves, and deletions involve
only one connection: between that device and the hub.
4. Other advantage include robustness. If one link fails, only that link is affected. All
other links remain active.
• This factor also lends itself to easy fault identification and fault isolation.
• As long as the hub is working, it can be used to monitor link problems.
Chapter Three: Computer Network
Disadvantages
 One big disadvantage of a star topology is the dependency of the whole topology
on one single point, the hub.
 If the hub goes down, the whole system is dead.
 Although a star requires far less cable than a mesh, each node must be linked to a
central hub.
 For this reason, often more cabling is required in a star than in some other
topologies (such as ring or bus).
 Costly because of the central device when compared with bus and ring topology.
Chapter Three: Computer Network
4. Mesh Topology:
 In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every other
device.
 Each and every computers are connected to all the other computers on the
network.
 To find the number of physical links in a fully connected mesh network with n
nodes, we first consider that each node must be connected to every other node.
 Node 1 must be connected to n - I nodes, node 2 must be connected to n – 1
nodes, and finally node n must be connected to n - 1 nodes. We need n(n - 1)
physical links.
Chapter Three: Computer Network
 However, if each physical link allows communication in both directions (duplex
mode), we can divide the number of links by 2.
 In other words, we can say that in a mesh topology, we need n(n -1) /2 duplex-
mode links.
 To accommodate that many links, every device on the network must have n – 1
input/output ports to be connected to the other n - 1 stations.
 The data is always delivered.
 Since, if one of the primary computers or connections in the network fails, the rest
of the network continues to operate normally.
 But the performance of the network will decrease.
Computer Network: Network Topology
4. Mesh Topology
 A mesh topology network offers superior redundancy and reliability.
 In a mesh topology, each computer is connected to every other computer by
separate cabling.
 This configuration provides redundant paths throughout the network so that if one
cable fails, another will take over the traffic.
 While ease of troubleshooting and increased reliability are definite benefits, these
networks are expensive to install because they use a lot of cabling.
Chapter Three: Computer Network
Advantages:
 Manages high amounts of traffic, because multiple devices can transmit data
simultaneously.
 A failure of one device does not cause a break in the network or transmission of
data.
 Adding additional devices does not disrupt data transmission between other
devices.
Disadvantages:
 Costly
 Building and maintaining the topology is difficult and time consuming.
Computer Network: Network Topology
5. Tree Topology
 Tree topology integrate multiple star topologies together into bus.
 The bus/star hybrid approach supports future expandability of the network much
better than star or bus.
Disadvantages
 Overall length of each segment is limited to the type of cabling used.
 If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down.
 More difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.
Computer Network: Network Topology
6. Hybrid Topology
A combination of two or more topology is known as hybrid topology. For example a
combination of star and mesh topology is known as hybrid topology.
Advantages
2. Scalable as we can further connect other computer networks with the existing
networks with different topologies.
Disadvantages
1. Fault detection and installation is difficult.
3. Design is complex so maintenance is high expensive.
Thank You!
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