Post harvest handling and

value addition of grain crops(PlSc411)

2025

Mersa, Ethiopia

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 Chapter 1 - Introduction

• PHVA of grain crops - the processes involved in preserving, processing,

and transforming raw grains into higher-value products, thereby

adding value to the crop.

• The goal is to maintain or enhance the quality of the grain, reduce

losses, and create new products with improved nutritional, functional,

or sensory properties.
Post-Harvest Handling:
• Drying: Removing excess moisture
• Cleaning: Removing impurities and debris
• Storage: Storing grains in a controlled environment
• Transportation: Moving from the farm to processing or storage
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 Chapter 1 - Introduction . . .

Value Addition:
• Grinding and Milling: Grinding grains into flour or other meal products
• Roasting: Roasting grains to enhance their flavor and aroma for use
• Flaking: Flaking grains into thin layers for use
• Extrusion: Extruding grains into expanded forms for use
• Oil extraction: Extracting oil from grains for use
• Fermentation: Fermenting grains to create traditional products
• Pasta production: Processing grains into pasta products for use
• Snack food production: Processing grains into snack foods

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 Chapter 1 - Introduction . . .

The benefits of PHH and VA of grain crops include:

• Reducing food waste: By preserving and processing grains, we can reduce
post-harvest losses and make better use of the crop.
• Creating new markets: Value-added products can open up new markets
and increase revenue for farmers and processors.
• Improving nutrition: Processing grains can enhance their nutritional
content and make them more accessible to consumers.
• Supporting rural development: Post-harvest handling and value addition
can create jobs and stimulate economic growth in rural areas.

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 1.1. The Role of Storage in Economy

1. Balancing Supply and Demand:

– Smoothing Fluctuations
– Price Stabilization 4. Creating Value and Innovation
– Contingency Planning • Value Addition
2. Enhancing Production Efficiency: • Technological Advancements
• Just-in-Time vs. Just-in-Case • Investment and Job Creation
• Economies of Scale 5. Economic Impacts:
•Specialization and Division of Labor • GDP Growth
3. Facilitating Trade and Distribution: • Inflation Control
• Global Trade • Consumer Welfare
• Distribution Networks • Risk Management
• E-commerce Growth

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 Challenges and Considerations
o Cost of Storage:

– Storage involves costs for warehousing, labor, energy, and insurance.

o Obsolescence and Spoilage:

– Stored goods can become obsolete or spoil.

o Environmental Impact:

– Storage facilities can consume energy and generate waste.

– Sustainable storage practices are becoming increasingly important.
o Infrastructure and Investment:

– The need for modern and efficient storage infrastructure requires

significant investment in warehouses, transportation, and technology.

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 1.2. Seed and Grain Losses in Storage

• Causes of Seed and Grain Losses:

– Moisture: High humidity and moisture can lead to mold growth,
sprouting, and insect infestations, causing significant losses.
– Temperature: Extreme temperatures affect seed viability/grain quality.
– Pests and insects: Insects, rodents, and birds can damage seeds/grains,.
– Diseases: Fungal and bacterial diseases can infect seeds and grains,
reducing their quality and germination rates.
– Physical damage: Mechanical damage during handling, transportation,
and storage can cause cracks, breaks, ...
– Poor storage facilities: Inadequate storage facilities, such as those with
poor ventilation, inadequate pest control, and insufficient moisture
protection, can contribute to losses.
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 1.2. Seed and Grain Losses in Storage…

• Types of Seed and Grain Losses:

– Quantitative losses: These refer to the physical loss of seeds or grains
due to damage, spoilage, or theft.
– Qualitative losses: These refer to the loss of seed or grain quality,
including reduced germination rates, decreased nutritional value, or
increased susceptibility to diseases.
– Economic losses: These refer to the financial losses incurred due to
seed and grain losses, including the cost of replacement, lost revenue,
and reduced market value.

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 1.2. Seed and Grain Losses in Storage…

• Consequences of Seed and Grain Losses:

– Food insecurity: Seed and grain losses can lead to reduced food
availability, contributing to food insecurity and malnutrition.
– Economic impacts: Seed and grain losses can result in significant
economic losses for farmers, traders, and consumers.
– Environmental impacts: The production, transportation, and storage
of seeds and grains require significant resources, including energy,
water, and land. Losses during storage can increase the environmental
footprint of these activities.

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 1.2. Seed and Grain Losses in Storage…

• Strategies to Mitigate Seed and Grain Losses:

– Proper drying and storage
– Aeration and ventilation
– Pest control
– Cleaning and sanitation
– Monitoring and inspection
– Use of appropriate storage facilities
– Training and education

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 1.3. Pre and post-harvest factors influencing grain storage

I. Pre-Harvest Factors:
– These are factors that occur before the grain is harvested.
. Cultivar/Variety Selection:
• Different grain varieties have varying storage characteristics.
• Choosing a suitable variety for the local climate and storage
. Agronomic Practices:
• Fertilization:
• Irrigation:
• Weed, Pest, and Disease Control:
• Harvest Timing:
. Weather Conditions:
• Temperature and Humidity:
• Rainfall:
• Disease Outbreaks:

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12:48 PM 11
 1.3. Pre and post-harvest factors influencing grain storage…

II. Post-Harvest Factors:

• These are factors that occur after the grain is harvested
. Harvesting Practices:
– Harvesting Equipment:
– Harvesting Operations:
– Moisture Content:
. Cleaning and Sorting:
– Removal of Foreign Material:
– Sorting:
. Storage Structure and Environment:
. Pest Control:
. Grain Management Practices:

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 1.5. Improvement on farm, small- and large-scale storage

I. Farm-Scale Storage Improvements:

. Produce Storage:
– Controlled Atmosphere (CA) Storage:
– Modified Atmosphere Packaging (MAP):
– Evaporative Cooling:
– Refrigerated Storage:
– Pre-Cooling:
– Smart sensors and Automation:
. Grain Storage:
– Grain Silos with Advanced Aeration and Drying:
– Grain Bagging:
– Pest Management:
. Other Farm Inputs (Fertilizers, Animal Feed):
– Bulk Storage Tanks and Bins:
– Climate-Controlled Storage (For Sensitive Inputs):
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 1.5. Improvement on farm, small- and large-scale storage

II. Small-Scale Storage Improvements (Home Storage, Community

Gardens):
. Cold Storage:
– Energy-Efficient Refrigerators and Freezers:
– Root Cellars and Earth Shelters:
. Drying and Dehydration:
– Solar Dryers: Low-cost and sustainable.
– Electric Dehydrators: Convenient for indoor use.
. Canning and Preserving:
– Pressure Canners: Essential for low-acid foods.
– Water Bath Canning: Suitable for high-acid foods.
. Other Techniques:
• Fermentation:
• Vacuum Sealing: Extending the shelf life of many foods.

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 1.5. Improvement on farm, small- and large-scale storage
III. Large-Scale Storage Improvements (Warehouses, Distribution
Centers):
– It is critical for food distribution and global supply chains.
. Warehouse Design and Construction:
– Optimized Layouts:
– Insulated Warehouses with Advanced Climate Control:
– Building Materials and Sustainable Design:
. Cold Chain Management:
– Refrigerated Transportation:
– Cold Storage Facilities:
. Inventory Management and Technology:
– Warehouse Management Systems (WMS):
– Automated Storage and Retrieval Systems (AS/RS):
. Sustainability and Waste Reduction:
– Food Waste Reduction Strategies:
– Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy:
– Packaging
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 1.5. Improvement on farm, small- and large-scale storage

IV. Cross-Cutting Considerations:

• Cost-Benefit Analysis: Carefully evaluate the costs of each improvement
against the potential benefits, such as reduced spoilage, extended shelf life,
lower energy consumption, and increased efficiency.
• Investment in Training: Ensure staffs are trained on the operation and
maintenance of new storage technologies.
• Regulatory Compliance: Adhere to all relevant food safety and
environmental regulations.
• Adaptation to Climate Change: Design storage facilities to withstand
extreme weather events, such as floods and heatwaves.

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 CHAPTER 2-POST-HARVEST TECHNOLOGY

• Refers to the application of scientific principles and techniques to handle,

process, store, and transport agricultural products after they have been
harvested.
• The primary goal is to minimize losses in quantity and quality, and to
extend the shelf life of these products.
• This encompasses a wide range of activities from the field to the consumer:
– Pre-harvest practices:
– Cleaning and sorting:
– Grading:
– Cooling and temperature management:
– Cleaning and disinfection:
– Packaging and Storage:
– Transportation and Processing:
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 CHAPTER 2-POST-HARVEST TECHNOLOGY…

 By implementing effective post-harvest technologies, it's possible to:

– Reduce food losses: Minimizing waste and ensuring a more sustainable

food supply.
– Improve food quality: Maintaining the nutritional value, flavor, and
appearance of products.
– Increase marketability: Enhancing the competitiveness of agricultural
products.
– Extend shelf life: Allowing products to be stored and transported over
longer distances.
– Enhance food safety: Reducing the risk of contamination and spoilage.
– Increase income for farmers: By reducing losses and delivering high-
quality products to consumers.
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 2.1. Importance of Post-Harvest Technology of Grain Crops
 PHT is importance for several reasons, contributing significantly to global
food security, economic stability, and consumer well-being.
o Minimizing Food Losses:
– Quantitative Losses:
– Qualitative Losses:
o Enhancing Food Security:
– Increased Availability:
– Year-Round Availability:
– Reducing Dependence on Imports:
o Improving Economic Efficiency and Farmer Incomes:
– Value Addition:
– Reduced Costs:
– Market Access:
o Protecting Consumer Health:
– Reducing Contaminants: .
– Maintaining Nutritional Value:
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– Food Safety:
2.1. Importance of Post-Harvest Technology of Grain Crops…
o Environmental Sustainability:
– Reduced Waste:
– Efficient Resource Use:
– Sustainable Practices:
o Specific Technologies and Practices:
• Post-harvest technology encompasses a range of practices and technologies,
including:
– Harvesting Techniques:
– Drying:
– Cleaning and Grading:
– Storage:
– Processing:
– Packaging and Handling:
– Transportation:
• In summary, post-harvest technology for grain crops is vital for ensuring
that food reaches consumers safely and with as much of its nutritional value
as possible.
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2.2. Drying, Packaging, Transporting and Storing Technologies

• Post-harvest technology is a crucial area in agriculture that helps minimize

food waste, improve the availability of food, preserve quality, ensure
efficient distribution of grain crops and enhances the economic viability of
agriculture.
1. Drying:
• Purpose: Reduces moisture content to prevent spoilage.
• Technologies:
– Sun Drying: Simple, traditional method.
– Mechanical Drying: Uses heated air.
o Considerations: Temperature control, airflow, and grain type are
important.

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2.2. Drying, Packaging, Transporting and Storing Technologies

2. Packaging:
• Purpose: Protects grain from physical damage, pests, moisture, and
contamination during handling and storage. Enables easy handling and
transport.
• Technologies:
– Bulk Storage: Large silos, warehouses. Used for large quantities.
– Bags/Sacks: Traditional, can be filled manually or by automated
systems.
– Big Bags (Flexible Intermediate Bulk Containers - FIBCs): Large, flexible
bags that can hold significant quantities.
– Considerations: Material selection (strength, permeability), bag size,
sealing methods.
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 2.2. Drying, Packaging, Transporting and Storing Technologies

3. Transportation:
• Purpose: Moving grain from the field to the drying/storage facility, and
from storage to processing plants and consumers.
• Technologies:
– Trucks: Most common for short- to medium-distance transport.
– Railways: Efficient for long distances and large volumes.
– Ships/Barges: Used for international trade and transport via waterways.
– Considerations: Road conditions, infrastructure, transportation costs,
and the method of loading and unloading.

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 2.2. Drying, Packaging, Transporting and Storing Technologies

4. Storage:
• Purpose: Preserves grain quality and extends shelf life, protects from pests,
rodents, and spoilage.
• Technologies:
– Silos: Tall cylindrical structures, can be made of concrete or steel.
– Warehouses: Large buildings, can be equipped with climate control
and pest management.
– Modified Atmosphere Storage: Uses controlled atmospheres
– Hermetic Storage: Airtight storage containers to prevent moisture and
pest infiltration.
– Considerations: Moisture content, temperature, pest control,
ventilation, and storage duration.
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CHAPTER 3-PRE-HARVEST CONDITIONS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO
LOSSES OF POST-HARVEST
• Weather:
– Excessive rainfall:
– Drought:
– High humidity:
• Pest and Disease Infestations:
– Insect infestations in the field:
– Disease outbreaks:
• Agronomic Practices:
– Improper fertilization:
– Poor weed control:
– Delayed harvesting:
• In summary, pre-harvest conditions that negatively affect grain quality
(high moisture content, pest damage, fungal contamination) make it more
difficult and costly to properly store and maintain grain. These conditions
create a perfect opportunity for the grain to be spoiled and damaged further,
increasing post-harvest losses.
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 3.1. Grain Harvesting, Threshing and Cleaning
• Grain harvesting, threshing, and cleaning are critical steps in the post-
harvest handling of grain crops. However, these processes can contribute to
post-harvest losses if not executed carefully.
Grain Harvesting:
• Moisture content: Harvesting grain at the right moisture content is crucial
to minimize post-harvest losses.
• Equipment damage: Inadequate equipment or poor maintenance can lead
to grain breakage, dust contamination, and spoilage during harvesting.
• Weather conditions: Inclement weather, such as rain, hail, or high wind,
can damage grain crops, reduce yields, and increase post-harvest losses.
Threshing:
• Grain damage: Mechanical forces used during threshing can damage
grain, leading to losses due to shattered grains, dust contamination, or grain
breakage.
• Insect and pest infestation: Threshing can dislodge insects and pests from
the crop, which can lead to infestation and spoilage during storage.
• Dust contamination: Threshing can create dust, which can be a fire hazard
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and reduce grain quality.
 3.1. Grain Harvesting, Threshing and Cleaning

Cleaning:
• Over-cleaning: Over-aggressive cleaning can remove good grain along
with the impurities, leading to post-harvest losses.
• Under-cleaning: Inadequate cleaning can leave behind impurities, which
can lead to spoilage, pests, and diseases.
• Dust and debris contamination: Cleaning equipment can introduce dust
and debris into the grain, which can lead to contamination and spoilage.

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 Generic food supply chain and examples of
waste

Stage Examples of waste

Harvesting, handling Edible crops left in field, eaten by pests; timing of
at harvesting harvest not optimal; crop damaged during harvesting

Threshing Loss due to poor technique

Drying, transport Quality and quantity loss of during drying, poor
and distribution transport infrastructure; loss owning to
spoiling/bruising

Storage Pests and disease attacks, spillage, contamination;

natural drying out of food
Packaging Inappropriate packaging damages produces; grain
spillage from sacks; attack by pests
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 Practices to reduce post-harvest losses
Stage Description and strategy

o Most of producers harvest grain crops once the grain reaches

physiological maturity (moisture content is 20-30%)

o At this stage the grain is very susceptible to pest attacks.

o Poor farmers sometimes harvest crops too early due to food

Harvesting

deficiency or the desperate need for cash.

o In this way, the food incurs a loss in nutritional and economic

value, and may get wasted if it is not suitable for consumption.

oQuality cannot be improved after harvest, only maintained;

therefore, it is important to harvest at the proper maturity stage
and at peak quality.

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 Practices to reduce post-harvest losses . . .
Stage Description and strategy

Most farmers, both small and large, rely almost exclusively on

natural drying of crops

Grains should be dried in such a manner that damage to the

grain is minimized and moisture levels are lower than those
required to support mold growth during storage (usually below 13-
15%).
Drying

This is necessary to prevent further growth of fungal species that

may be present on fresh grains.

The harvested crop may be dried in the yard or in a crib

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 Practices to reduce post-harvest losses . . .

Stage Description and strategy

oFor some grains, particularly millet and sorghum, threshing may

be delayed for several months after harvest and

o the unthreshed crop stored in open cribs.

Threshing/shelling

oIn the case of maize, the grain may be stored on the cob with or
without sheathing leaves for some months, or the cobs may be
shelled and grain stored.

oSome machinery suitable for small-scale operation exists such as:

maize shellers; Rice mechanical threshers …

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 Practices to reduce post-harvest losses . . .

Stage Description and strategy

Usually done prior to storage or marketing if the grain is to be

sold directly.

For the majority of the smallholder , this process is done

manually.
Winnow/cleaning

It is relatively ineffective from a commercial perspective, since

grain purchased from smallholders frequently requires screening to
remove stones, sand, and extraneous organic matter.

There is little incentive for smallholders to provide well-cleaned

grain for marketing; as a result profits from sales are limited.

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 Practices to reduce post-harvest losses . . .

Stage Description and strategy

Post-harvest losses at storage are associated with both poor

storage conditions and lack of storage capacity.

It is important that stores be constructed in such a way as to

provide: -

o dry, well-vented conditions allowing further drying in case of

storage

limited opportunities for complete drying prior to storage;

o protection from rain and drainage of ground water; and

o protection from entry of rodents and birds and minimum

temperature fluctuations.

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 Post-Harvest Losses:

– Mold growth:
– Insect infestation:
– Dust contamination:
– Grain spoilage:
 Mitigation Strategies:

– Invest in proper equipment:

– Implement efficient harvesting, threshing, and cleaning techniques:
– Monitor grain moisture content:
– Implement good storage practices:
– Use grain cleaning machines and equipment:

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 CHAPTER 4 - QUALITY AND GRADING OF GRAIN

• Grain quality and grading are essential components of the agricultural

industry, ensuring that grain crops meet specific standards for safety,
nutrition, and marketability.
• These processes involve evaluating various physical and chemical
characteristics of grains to determine their suitability for different end uses.
 Key Factors in Grain Quality and Grading:
– Test Weight:
– Moisture Content:
– Foreign Material:
– Damaged Kernels:
– Color and Appearance:
– Odor:

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 CHAPTER 4 - QUALITY AND GRADING OF GRAIN…

 Importance of Quality Grading:

• Marketability: High-quality grains that meet established standards are

more desirable in the marketplace, often commanding premium prices.
• Consumer Safety: Ensuring grains are free from contaminants and
spoilage protects public health.
• Processing Efficiency: Grains that meet quality standards are more
predictable in processing, leading to better yields and product consistency.
• Reputation Management: Farmers and producers who consistently
provide high-quality grains build trust and credibility with buyers and
consumers.

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 4.1. Quality Characteristics of Grains

• Grain quality is determined by a combination of intrinsic and extrinsic

characteristics that influence the grain's suitability for various end uses.
 Intrinsic Characteristics:

• Composition: The nutritional makeup of grains, such as carbohydrates,

proteins, lipids, minerals, and fiber, is vital for determining their suitability.
• Color: The appearance of grain, including its color, is a primary factor in
quality assessment.
• Size and Shape: Consistent size and shape are important for processing
efficiency and consumer acceptance.
• Odor and Flavor: The sensory attributes of grains, including their smell
and taste, are crucial for consumer satisfaction .
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 4.1. Quality Characteristics of Grains

 Extrinsic Characteristics:

• Moisture Content: The amount of water present in grain affects its

storability and susceptibility to spoilage.
• Foreign Material: The presence of non-grain substances, such as dirt,
stones, or other seeds, can compromise grain purity and safety.
• Damaged Kernels: Kernels that are broken, discolored, or affected by
pests and diseases can diminish the overall quality and market value of the
grain.
• Test Weight (Bulk Density): This measures the weight of grain per unit
volume and serves as an indicator of grain soundness and milling yield.
– Understanding and monitoring these quality characteristics are fundamental for producers,
processors, and consumers to ensure that grain crops meet the required standards for their
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intended uses.
 4.2. Grain Standards

 Purpose of Grain Standards:

• Quality Assurance: Standards help maintain the desired quality levels of

grain, ensuring that they meet specific requirements for various end uses.
• Market Uniformity: By providing a common language for buyers and
sellers, grain standards promote efficient trading and pricing.
• Consumer Protection: They ensure that grain products are safe and meet
regulatory guidelines, protecting consumer health.
• Global Context: Internationally, grain standards may vary, but the core
objectives remain consistent: to ensure quality, safety, and marketability.
Countries often develop their own standards or adopt international
benchmarks to regulate grain quality, reflecting local agricultural practices
and consumer preferences.
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 4.3. Sampling, Equipment and Methods

• Proper sampling methods and equipment are crucial to obtain representative

samples that reflect the true characteristics of a grain lot.
Sampling Methods:
• Incremental Sampling: Collect small samples from different locations
within a grain lot to form a composite sample.
• Coning and Quartering: Mix the grain thoroughly, form it into a cone, and
then flatten it. Divide the flattened cone into quarters, discard two opposite
quarters, and repeat the process until the desired sample size is achieved.
• Use of Dividers: Employ devices like riffle dividers or rotary sample
dividers to split grain samples evenly, ensuring that subsamples are
representative of the original lot.

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 4.3. Sampling, Equipment and Methods
Sampling Equipment:
• Sampling Spears (Probes): Used for bagged grain, these come in various
designs, such as tapered or cylindrical, and are inserted into bags to extract
samples.
• Pelican Samplers: Designed for sampling grain from a flowing stream,
such as during loading or unloading.
• Mechanical Samplers: Automated systems installed in grain handling
facilities to collect samples at regular intervals from moving grain streams,
ensuring consistent and unbiased sampling.
Best Practices:
• Sample at Multiple Points: Collect samples during different stages—
harvest, storage, and out loading—to monitor changes in grain quality over
time.
• Ensure Equipment Cleanliness: Regularly clean and maintain sampling
equipment to prevent contamination and ensure accurate results.
• Proper Sample Handling: Store samples in moisture-proof containers and
label them accurately to maintain their integrity until analysis.
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 4.4. Quality Determination, Equipment and Methods
• Determining the quality of grain crops is essential for ensuring their
suitability for consumption, processing, and storage.
• Quality assessment involves evaluating various physical and chemical
attributes using specialized equipment and methods.
Quality Determination Methods:
• Physical Analysis:
– Test Weight Measurement:
– Size and Shape Analysis:
– Color Sorting:
• Chemical Analysis:
– Moisture Content Determination:
– Protein and Oil Content Analysis:
• Contaminant Detection:
– Mycotoxin Screening:
– Foreign Material Identification:

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 4.5. The Role of Standards in Local Trade

• Standards play a pivotal role in the local trade of grain crops by establishing
consistent criteria for quality, safety, and measurement.
• In Ethiopia, the Ethiopian Standards Agency (ESA) is responsible for
developing and publishing these standards.
Key Roles of Standards in Local Grain Trade:
• Quality Assurance:
• Market Transparency:
• Regulatory Compliance:
• Facilitating Trade:

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 CHAPTER 5 - POST-HARVEST GRAIN LOSS
• Post-harvest grain loss refers to the reduction in quantity and quality of
grain crops between harvest and consumption.
• These losses can significantly impact food security, farmer livelihoods, and
the economy, especially in developing countries.
Causes of Post-Harvest Grain Loss:
• Inadequate Drying:
• Pest Infestation:
• Poor Storage Conditions:
• Mechanical Damage:
Strategies to Reduce Post-Harvest Losses:
• Improved Drying Techniques:
• Enhanced Storage Solutions:
• Pest Management:
• Training and Education:

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 5.1. Methods of Post-Harvest Loss Assessment

• Assessing post-harvest losses in grain crops is essential for developing

effective strategies to minimize these losses and enhance food security.
• Various methods are employed to evaluate both quantitative and qualitative
losses throughout the post-harvest chain.
Methods of Post-Harvest Loss Assessment:
• Direct Measurement:
– Weight Loss Assessment: This involves measuring the weight of grain
before and after a specific post-harvest stage to determine losses.
– Volume Assessment: Measuring the volume of grain at different stages
can help identify losses.

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 5.1. Methods of Post-Harvest Loss Assessment

• Indirect Measurement:
– Surveys and Questionnaires: Collecting data from farmers, traders,
and other stakeholders about their experiences with post-harvest losses
provides insights into loss causes and extents.
– Visual Inspection: Assessing grain quality through visual cues, such as
discoloration, mold growth, or insect damage, helps estimate qualitative
losses.
• Scientific Analysis:
– Moisture Content Testing: Determining the moisture level of grains
can predict susceptibility to spoilage and pest infestation.
– Laboratory Analysis: Testing for nutrient degradation, mycotoxin
presence, or other quality parameters offers a detailed understanding of
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 5.1. Methods of Post-Harvest Loss Assessment

• Modeling and Estimation Tools:

– Post-Harvest Loss Assessment Models: Utilizing models that simulate
various post-harvest scenarios helps in estimating potential losses under
different conditions.
– Data Systems: Platforms like the African Postharvest Losses
Information System (APHLIS) provide loss estimates based on regional
data, aiding in understanding and addressing post-harvest issues.
• Implementing a combination of these methods allows for a comprehensive
assessment of post-harvest losses, enabling stakeholders to devise targeted
interventions to reduce losses and improve the overall efficiency of the
grain supply chain.

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 5.2. Loss of Grain Products in Field Temporary Storage,
Transportation and Stores
• Post-harvest losses in grain crops can occur at various stages, including
field temporary storage, transportation, and permanent storage facilities.
• Understanding the causes and implementing preventive measures at each
stage is crucial to minimize these losses.
Field Temporary Storage:
• After harvesting, grains are often stored temporarily in the field before
further processing/transportation. During this, losses can occur due to:
• Environmental Exposure:
• Pest Infestation:
• Delayed Processing:
Transportation:
• The movement of grains from fields to storage or markets presents several
challenges:
• Mechanical Damage:
• Spillage:
• Delays:
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 5.2. Loss of Grain Products in Field Temporary Storage,
Transportation and Stores

Permanent Storage Facilities:

• Long-term storage is essential for maintaining grain quality until it reaches
the consumer. However, losses can occur due to:
• Inadequate Storage Structures:
• Moisture Reabsorption:
• Pest Infestation:

Preventive Measures:
• To mitigate these losses, the following strategies can be employed:
• Improved Drying Techniques:
• Enhanced Storage Solutions:
• Proper Handling Practices:
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 5.3. Types of Grain Products Losses after Harvest
(Qualitative and Quantitative)
• Post-harvest losses in grain products can be categorized into two primary
types: quantitative and qualitative losses.
Quantitative Losses:
• These refer to the physical reduction in the amount of grain available for
consumption or sale. Such losses can occur at various stages, including
harvesting, drying, storage, and transportation. For instance, during drying,
grains may crack, leading to losses.
Qualitative Losses:
• These pertain to the deterioration in the quality of grain, affecting its
suitability for consumption or market value. Factors contributing to
qualitative losses include:
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 CHAPTER 6 - POST -HARVEST CONDITIONS THAT
CONTRIBUTE TO LOSSES OF POST-HARVEST

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 Loss Assessment

 There are several kinds of losses such as

 weight loss,
 quality loss
 food loss,
 economic loss,
 loss of good will or reputation,
 and seed loss.

02/28/2025 12:48 PM 52
 Loss Assessment . . .

• The qualitative los is caused by reduction in weight due to factors such

as incidence of insects, mites, fungi and bacteria, rodents, birds, and
also due to physical changes in temperature, moisture content.

• The qualitative change is caused by reduction in the nutritive value due

to factors such as attack of insect pests, mites, rodents and birds, or
from handling or physical changes or chemical changes in fat
carbohydrates and protein and by contamination of micotoxines,
pesticides, insect fragments, excreta of rodents and birds and their
dead bodies.

• However, when qualitative deterioration makes the grain unfit for human
consumption and is rejected, this will amount to a quantitative loss. In
loss assessment, therefore, great care will be necessary to insure
uniformity of concepts as well as practices.

02/28/2025 12:48 PM 53
 Loss Assessment . . .

• In order to effectively reduce postharvest losses, it is first necessary to

know the scale of these losses across the different stages, to know which
steps are the critical points for losses.

• However, efforts to identify and resolve the critical issues along the
value chain (VC) in many sub-Saharan African countries, including
Ethiopia, are impeded by the lack of
a simple,
adoptable, and
well-defined practical methodology on how to
estimate quantitative and qualitative postharvest
losses.

 This makes it impossible to have credible data during the various

operations along the value chain.
02/28/2025 12:48 PM 54
 Loss Assessment . . .

• Hence, the effort of any attempt to develop a

methodology should be to produce a guideline on the

• precise,
• timesaving,
• effective,
• and lowest-cost way of estimating grain
postharvest losses.

• This is because effective investment in PHL

mitigation requires a clear knowledge of the
magnitudes of the losses, the drivers of these losses
at each stage, and the cost of mitigation.

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 Loss Assessment at Harvesting

• The operation includes

o cutting the crop,

o gathering,

o bundling, and stacking when done

manually.
• at these stages losses mainly due to

o shading of grains,
o the amount of loss depending on the time of
harvesting.
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 Loss Assessment at Harvesting. . .

• In either case the loss can be estimated by selecting

random sample of fields, locating a plot 10mx5m in
each selected field randomly and collecting and
weighing shaded grain.

• The average yield of shaded grain compared with the

yield obtained by harvesting will give the percentage
loss,

• since the shading of grains depends on the time of

harvesting,
• early,
• in time
• or late,

• due to difference of moisture content at harvest,

is necessary
02/28/2025 12:48 PM at the time of harvesting 57
 Loss Assessment at
Threshing/Shelling. . .
• In this process the grains are beaten to separate
from the plant at which they are attached.

• The operation may be done manually or

mechanical threshers.

• In this case the loss that is of two kinds,

•
• one due to damage to grain in
processing.

• This can be estimated by selecting a measured

quantity of produce and

02/28/2025 12:48 PM 58
• hand stripping it carefully and noting
 Loss Assessment at
Threshing/Shelling. . .
• Alternatively, a sample of straw, stripped cobs etc,
obtained in the process of threshing may be taken,

• escaped grain picked from it and the

collected grain weighed.

• This will provide the measure of loss

directly.
• For estimated damage to grain a small quantity, say
half a kilogram of grain obtained after threshing can
be examined carefully and separated in to whole and
damaged grain.

• Their respective weights will provide percentage loss

from damage.

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12:48 PM
the exact nature of loss would depend on
59
 Loss Assessment at
Cleaning/Winnowing. . .
• In this process the grain is cleaned by blowing away
the chaff from it.
• The loss occurs because of a part of the
edible grain passing into chaff.
• For estimating this loss the total quantity of chaff
and grain obtained in an operation may be recorded.

• A sample of chaff may be taken and

examined for grain contained.

• The grains may be collected and

weighed.

• This will provide an estimate of the

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PM lost. 60
 Loss Assessment at Drying . . .

• Losses in drying can arise in two ways.

• On the one hand when the crop spread out on the

road or in the yard, a part of it will be eaten by birds,
rodents, insect pests, etc.,
• to estimate this quantity it will be
necessary to measure the moisture
content of the crop before and after
drying.

• The weight of the crop spread for

drying and collected after drying should
also be recorded.

• A comparison of the latter with the61

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 Loss Assessment at Drying . . .

• The other type of loss will be the result of

• in adequate drying which may lead to

fungal damage to grain or

• lower operation of recovery in milling of

greater broken.

• To estimate the loss occurring in this way,

• it will be necessary to take a sample of

the grain initially brought for drying,
process it scientifically
02/28/2025 12:48 PM 62
 Impacts of PHT in food security and
livelihoods

 Postharvest loss can be defined as the degradation in

both quantity and quality of a food production from
harvest to consumption.

 Quality losses include those that affect the

nutrient/caloric composition, the acceptability, and
the edibility of a given product.

o These losses are generally more common in

developed countries.

 Quantity losses refer to those that result in the loss

of the amount of a product.

o Loss of quantity is more common in developing

02/28/2025 12:48 PM 63
countries.
 Impacts of PHT in food security and
livelihoods . . .

 Postharvest technologies can contribute to food

security in multiple ways.

 They can reduce PHL, thereby increasing the amount

of food available for consumption by farmers and
poor rural and urban consumers.

 The benefits to consumers from reducing losses

include lower prices and improved food security.

 In addition, postharvest activities such as processing

and marketing can create employment (and thus
income) and better food security in the agricultural
sector.

02/28/2025 12:48 PM 64
 Impacts of PHT in food security and
livelihoods . . .

 Therefore, reducing PHL clearly complements other

efforts to enhance food security through improved
farm-level productivity.

 Techniques to reduce food losses require cultural and

economic adaption.

 This is so because all food losses occur at a particular

socio-cultural environment.

 The issue of food losses is of high importance in the

efforts to combat hunger, raise income and improve
food security in the world's poorest countries.

02/28/2025 12:48 PM 65
 Storage

• Storage plays an important role in postharvest food

supply chains because

• smallholder farmers usually store their

produce for home consumption or as
seed until they sell it in local markets.

• Farmers may have different reasons for choosing

storage structures.

• farmers use different types of storage structures

and containers to store their grains.

• polypropylene sacks is the most common traditional

storage structures used by farmers across the
country.
02/28/2025 12:48 PM 66
 Storage . . .

• Farmers mentioned different

reasons for using
polypropylene sacks:

• they are available in

local markets,

• are cost effective,

• and easily portable.

 Storage . . .

• In Ethiopia smallholder
farmers use different
traditional storage
containers. generally
made of locally available
materials such as

– bamboo split,

– wooden walls,

– mud, and

– thatched grass
roofs.
 Storage . . .

– Nevertheless, traditional storage

facilities may predispose the grain
to different deterioration agents and
cannot guarantee the protection of
stored grains for longer durations;

– thus, such grain losses are

considered as one main cause of
food insecurity for smallholder
farmers in developing countries.

– This suggests a need for improved

storage systems such as hermetic
silos and PICS bags,
 Storage. . .

– which help reduce grain storage losses and

maintain grain quality

– also observed that improved storage technologies

in Ethiopia can enhance food and nutritional
security in the country.

– Security of the stored grain, and the lifespan or

durability of the technology is important criteria
when choosing grain storage

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 Grain quality Features

• The grain is very important part of the food for the

humans, as well as feed for the animals.

• The grain and the grain foods are the basic

components of the human food.

• The grain foods assure the half of the daily energy

ration of the people in the developed countries and

80% in the developing countries,

• The grains of the wheat, maize, rice, barley, oats and

02/28/2025 12:48 PM 71
 Grain quality Features. . .

• Example of Maize grain quality groups (which are mainly related to

Grain quality Grain quality features
the visible) characteristics
groups
First group- Hole grains and broken grains bigger
standard than the half of the whole grain, with
kernel appearance, shape and color inherent
for the variety
Second group- Broken grains smaller than the half of
grain the whole grain, heat-damaged grains,
impurities small grains, shriveled grains, green
grains, sprouted grains, infected (with
Fusarium) grains, smutty grains
Third group- Corn-cob particles, leaf and stem
non grain fractions, pebbles, soil and sand, as well
impurities as harmful elements

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 Grain quality Features. . .
• characteristics related to the

o grain composition,
o dry matter content,
o moisture content,
o starch,
o protein,
o gluten,
o vitamins,
o toxins and
02/28/2025 12:48 PM 73
o mineral content are used in the
 Grain Grading Standards

• A set of standards established by the United States

Department of Agriculture (USDA), known as the
Grain Grading Standards (USDA 1995), serve as a
general guideline for characterizing physical grain
quality.

• This system was developed in 1916 to enable grain

merchants to trade grain using consistent,
measurable quality criteria.

• Grain quality measurements are categorized as

o Non grade determining factors,

02/28/2025 12:48 PM 74
 Grain Grading Standards. . .

• Non grade determining factors include

o moisture and possibly dockage (depending on the
grain).

o These factors are measured using approved testing

equipment following official procedures.

o The results of these tests are included on the Grade

Certificate; however, the information is not used to
assign a grade.

o For example, an individual purchasing may receive

02/28/2025 12:48 PM 75
grain with any moisture content (e.g. 10 to 20%).
 Grain Grading Standards. . .

• Grade determining factors include

• test weight,

• damaged kernels,

• foreign material,

• broken kernels,

• odor, and heating.

• These factors are used to assign a numerical grade.

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 Grain Grading Standards. . .

• Special grades (depending on the grain) include

• infested,

• smutty.

• These words are added to the grade designation but

do not determine the numerical grade.

• For example, sorghum that meets or exceeds grading

factors contains 20 or more smut balls in a 100 gram

portion would be assigned as Sorghum, Smutty.

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 Grain Sampling

• Accurate sampling is essential to understand the

quality of your grain.

• It informs your grain management, and provides a

robust record of all the grain that leaves the farm.

Grain sampling has required to measure

key quality parameters

Monitoring of mycotoxins require the

industry to demonstrate due diligence,
and samples of grain traded form part
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PM that evidence. 78
 Grain Sampling . . .

o Best practice is to sample at

every step of the grain

chain.

o Merchants may also take

samples

 From harvest aggregate

samples or

 from on-farm stores for an

indication of market

suitability.
 Grain Sampling Stages
• The best approach to grain sampling depends on the
sampling step.

• However, there are three broad sampling stages

used to build a final sample, suitable for a wide
range of analyses.

Stage 1. Take incremental samples

– An incremental sample is any single, relatively

small sample.

– This primary sample may be taken by spear, jug

or other means.

– They are taken at one point in the grain chain,

from grain with similar qualities.
 Grain Sampling Stages
Stage 2. Create a mixed aggregate sample

 Incremental samples are combined to form a large

aggregate sample.
 These should be held in a clean dustbin or similar
container.
 Aggregate samples include grains of various sizes and
quality.
 It is important that all grains have an equal chance of
being included in any subsample drawn from it.
 This requires a thorough pre-mixing of the sample, with a
drum mixer or by hand.

How to mix aggregate samples by hand

 Tip the aggregate onto a clean floor area

 Mix thoroughly with a shovel or scoop

 Grain Sampling Stages . . .

Stage 3. Make representative samples

– A thoroughly pre-mixed aggregate sample can be

used as the source for representative subsamples.

– Such samples are most suitable for laboratory

analysis.

– The extraction of subsamples requires further

mixing of the grain.

– There are several methods (of varying complexity)

that produce optimally mixed grain.

– A simple method is coning and quartering.

 The coning and quartering
method Grain Sampling Stages . . .

– A heap of tipped grain will

take the rough form of a
cone – it can be described as
having four quarters (e.g. A,
B, C and D).

– Select two opposite corners

(e.g. A+D). Remove the
other two quarters (e.g.
B+C) and return them to the
original aggregate
container.

– Mix the selected samples

(e.g. A+D) to form a new
cone of grain.

– Repeat until the size of one

of the quarters is the
equivalent weight of the