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Psyche – Soul & Logos- Science/Study
of a Subject
Mental Experienc
processes es
Psycholog
y
Is a Science
In
Differen
Behavi t
our Context
Behaviour- are responses or reactions we make
or activities we engage in. Behaviour is of types:-

1. Covert 2. Overt
Behaviour- Goes Behaviour-
on inside the mind, outwardly seen by
and hence can’t be an observer.
observed.
 PSYCHOLOGY AS A NATURAL
SCIENCE
 Modern psychology has developed
because of the application of the
scientific method to study
psychological phenomenon.
 It focuses largely on biological
principles to explain human
behaviour.
 It assumes that all behavioural
phenomena have causes which can
be discovered if we can collect data
systematically under controlled
conditions.
 PSYCHOLOGY AS A SOCIAL
SCIENCE-
It focuses on how behavioural
phenomena can be explained in
terms of the sociocultural context.
Each behavioural phenomenon is
assumed to have multiple
causes.

 In psychology we study human

behavior and each individual is
different, infact every individual
may react differently in similar
situations. Understanding and
dealing with the differences is what
makes psychology a social science.
 UNDERSTANDING MIND AND
BEHAVIOUR

 Recent studies have clearly shown that by using positive

visualisation techniques and feeling positive emotions,
one can bring about significant changes in bodily
processes.

 Use of mental imagery, i.e. images generated by a person

in her/his mind, have been used to cure various kinds of
phobias.
EVOLUTION OF PSYCHOLOGY
 1. Structuralism (By Wilhelm
Wundt)-
 Established the first experimental
laboratory for Psychology in the
year 1879, in Leipzig, Germany.
 Were interested in analyzing the
structure of mind or building
blocks of mind, through a method
known as Introspection.
 Introspection was a procedure in
which subjects are asked to
describe in detail, their own
mental processes or
experiences.
 Introspection was later criticized
 2. Functionalism (By William
 Established a
James)-
psychological
laboratory in Cambridge,
Massachusetts.

 William James believed that

instead of focusing on the structure
of the mind, psychology should
instead study what the mind
does and how behaviour
functions in making people
deal with their environment.

 According to them psychology

 3. Gestalt psychology (By Kohler,
Koffka, Wertheimer)
 It emerged in Germany as a
reaction to the structuralism.

 It focused on the
organisation of perceptual
experiences.

 According to them “Whole is

greater than the sum of its
parts”, which means, what we
experience is more than the
inputs received from our
environment.
 4. Behaviourism ( By John B.
 Rejected
Watson)-
structuralism,
because mind is not
observable and
introspection is subjective.

 According to him, scientific

psychology must focus on
what is observable and
verifiable.

 He defined psychology as a
study of behaviour or
responses (to stimuli) which
 5. Psychoanalysis (By Sigmund Freud)-

 He founded psychoanalysis as a system to

understand and cure psychological
disorders.
 Psychoanalysis viewed human beings as
motivated by unconscious desire for
gratification of pleasure seeking (and
often, sexual) desires and conflicts.
 He was criticized as having negative view
of human nature.
 6. Humanistic Perspective (By Carl
Roger and Abraham Maslow)-
 Took a more positive view of
human nature.

 According to them behaviourism

has a very mechanistic view of
human nature, as they considered
environment a very important factor
in determining human behavior.

 Maslow, emphasised the free

will of human beings and their
natural striving to grow and
unfold their inner potential.
 7. Cognitive Perspective-
 Gestalt approach and
structuralism were combined
and led to the development of
the cognitive perspective which
focuses on how we know about
the world.

 Cognition is the process of

knowing. It involves thinking,
understanding, perceiving,
memorising, problem solving
and a host of other mental
processes by which our
 8. Constructivism-
 Mind, according to this
view is like a computer
and it receives,
processes, transforms,
stores and retrieves
information.

 Modern cognitive
psychology views human
beings as actively
constructing their minds
 1.Cognitive Psychology
• Investigates mental processes involved in
acquisition, storage, manipulation, and
transformation of information received from
the environment along with its use and
communication.

• Cognitive psychologists often collaborate with

2. Biological Psychology- neuroscientists and computer scientists.
• Focuses on the relationship between behaviour
and the physical system, including the brain and
the rest of the nervous system, the immune
system, and genetics.
• Biological psychologists often collaborate with
neuroscientists, zoologists, and
anthropologists.
• Neuropsychology has emerged as a field of
research where psychologists and
neuroscientists are working together, to study
 3. Developmental Psychology-
 Studies the physical, social and psychological changes
that occur at different ages and stages over a life-span,
from conception to old age.
 The primary concern of developmental psychologists is
how we become what we are.
 They focus on the biological, socio-cultural and
environmental factors that influence psychological
characteristics such as intelligence, cognition, emotion,
temperament, morality, and social relationship.
 Developmental psychologists collaborate with almost
4. Social Psychology-
every branch of knowledge.
• Explores how people are affected by their
social environments, how people think about
and influence others.
• Social psychologists are interested in such
topics as attitudes, conformity and obedience
to authority, interpersonal attraction, helpful
 5. Cross-cultural and Cultural Psychology-
 Cultural Psychology examines the role of
culture in understanding behaviour, thought,
and emotion.
 Cross-cultural psychology is the scientific study
of human behavior and mental processes,
including both their variability and invariance, under
diverse cultural conditions.

6. Environmental Psychology-
Studies the interaction of physical
factors such as temperature,
humidity, pollution, and natural
disasters on human behaviour.
The influence of physical arrangement
of the workplace on health, the
emotional state, and interpersonal
 7. Health Psychology
Focuses on the role of psychological
factors (for example, stress, anxiety) in
the development, prevention and
treatment of illness.

8. Industrial/Organisational
Psychology
Industrial/organisational
psychologists are concerned with
training employees, improving work
conditions, and developing criteria
 9. Educational Psychology-
 Studies how people of all ages learn. Educational
psychologists primarily help develop instructional
methods and materials used to train people in
both educational and work settings.
 A related field, school psychology, focuses on
designing programmes that promotes
intellectual, social, and emotional
development of children, including those with
special needs.

10. Sports Psychology-

Applies psychological principles to
improve sports performance by
enhancing their motivation.
 Clinical Counselling
Psychologist Psychologist
Deal with causes, Aims to improve
treatment and everyday functioning
prevention of different by helping people
types of psychological solve problems in
disorders such as daily living and cope
anxiety, depression, more effectively with
eating disorders and challenging
chronic substance situations.
 Themes of Research and
Application
Theme 1 : Psychology like other
sciences attempts to develop
principles of behaviour and
mental processes.
 Psychologists, who choose to engage in
research, design and conduct experiments
on a wide range of psychological
phenomena.

 The purpose is to develop general principles

about behaviour and mental processes.

 The conclusions drawn on the basis of such

studies apply to everybody and are,
Theme 2 : Human behaviour is a
function of the attributes of
persons and environment.
 Theme 3 : Human behaviour is
caused

1. Most psychologists believe that all human behaviour can

be explained in terms of causes which are internal (to the
organism) or external having location in the outside
environment.

2. Although, psychologists look for causal explanations of

behaviour, they also realise that simple linear
explanations, such as X Causing Y do not hold true.

3. There is no one cause of behaviour. Human behaviour

has multiple causes.
 Theme 4 : Understanding of human
behaviour is culturally constructed.

1. There are psychologists who believe that

most psychological theories and models are
Euro-American in nature and therefore, do
not help us in understanding behaviours in
other cultural settings.

2. Psychologists from Asia, Africa and Latin

America have been critical of Euro-American
approaches which are propagated as
universal.
Theme 5 : Human behaviour can be
controlled and modified through
the application of psychological
principles.
Basic v/s Applied Psychology
 There is no sharp cleavage between
research and application of psychology.
For example, basic psychology provides
us with theories and principles that
form the basis of application of psychology
and applied psychology provides us
with different contexts in which these
theories and principles d can be
meaningfully applied.
 Thus, there is seemingly no fundamental
difference between research and application
of psychology, but these activities are
highly interrelated and mutually
reinforcing.
 Psychology and other Disciplines

1. Philosophy-
 Until the end of the 19th century, certain
concerns that are now part of contemporary
psychology like, what is the nature of the mind
or how do humans come to know their
motivations and emotions were the concerns of
philosophers.

2. Computer Science
 Computer scientists and engineers are
seeking to make computers not only more
and more intelligent but also machines
which can sense and feel ( Artificial
intelligence).
 3. Medicine-
 A Healthy body requires a healthy mind, is actually true.
 The role of psychologists in hospitals is preventing people from
engaging in health hazardous behaviours and in adhering to the
prescribed doctors’ regimen are some of the important areas
where the two disciplines have come together.
 While treating patients suffering from cancer, AIDS, and the
physically challenged, or handling patients in the Intensive Care
Unit, and patients during post operative care doctors have also
felt the need for psychological counselling.

4. Law and Criminology-

A skilled lawyer and a criminologist requires
knowledge of psychology in answering such
questions as: How well a witness remembers an
accident, a street fight, or a murder? How well can
s/he report such facts when taking the witness
stand in the court? What are the dependable signs
of guilt and falsehood?
 5. Economics, Political Science and
Sociology-

Psychology has contributed a great deal to the study

of micro-level economic behaviour, particularly in
understanding consumer behaviour, savings
behaviour and in decision making.

Political science too draws considerably from

psychology, particularly, in understanding issues
related to exercise of power and authority, nature
of political conflicts and their resolutions, and
voting behaviour.

Sociology and psychology come together to

explain and understand the behaviour of
individuals within different socio-cultural contexts.
Issues related to socialisation, group and collective
behaviour, and intergroup conflicts
 6. Mass Communication-
 The print and the electronic media have a major influence
on our thinking, attitudes and our emotions.
 The impact of the media on the formation of attitudes of
children and their behaviour is a domain where both these
disciplines come together.
 Psychology also helps in developing strategies for better
and effective communication. A journalist in reporting
news must know the reader’s interests in the story.

7. Music and FineArts-

Scientists have made use of music in
raising work performance.
Musicians in India have recently started
experimenting with what they call ‘Music
Therapy’. In this they use different ‘Ragas’
for curing certain physical ailments. The
efficacy of music therapy still remains to
be proven.
8. Architecture and
Engineering-
 An architect, must satisfy her/his
clients by providing mental and
physical space through their design
and satisfy aesthetically.
 Engineers must also take into
account human habits in their plans
for safety, for example, on streets
and highways.
 Psychological knowledge helps in a
big way in designing of all
mechanical devices and displays.
 Psychologist at work
1. Clinical Psychologists
 Specialise in helping clients with behavioural
problems by providing therapy for various
mental disorders and in cases of anxiety or
fear, or with stresses at home or at work.
 They work either as private practitioners
or at hospitals, mental institutions, or
with social agencies.
 They may be involved in conducting
interviews and administering
psychological tests to diagnose the
client’s problems, and use psychological
methods for their treatment and
rehabilitation.
2. Counselling Psychologists-
 Work with persons who suffer from
motivational and emotional
problems. The problems of their clients
are less serious than those of the
clinical psychologists.

 They help people in making

professional choices or in adjusting
to new and difficult situations of life.

 Counselling psychologists work for

public agencies such as mental
health centres, hospitals, schools,
colleges and universities.
3. Community
Psychologists-

 They help the community and

its institutions in addressing
physical and mental health
problems.
 Many community psychologists
also work with special
populations such as the
elderly or the physically or
mentally challenged.
 They work for mental health
agencies, private
School Psychologists-
 Some school psychologists only
administer tests, whereas others
also interpret test results to help
students with their problems.
 They also help in the formulation of
school policies.
 They facilitate communication
between parents, teachers and
administrators, and also provide
teachers and parents with
information about the academic
progress of a student.
Organisational Psychologists-

 They provide organisations with

consultancy services and organise
skill training programmes.

 Some organisational psychologists

specialise in Human Resource
Development (HRD), while others in
Organisational Development and
Change Management programmes.