WOLITA SODO UNIVERSITY

DAWRO TARCHA CAMPUS

PLANT SCIENCE DEPARTMENT

Course: Postharvest Physiology and Handling of Horticultural Crops

Course code: (PlSc442), Credit Hours: 2(1+1)

Pre-requisite: Fruit Crops Production and Management, and Vegetable Crops

Production and Management

Instructor: Abera Asfaw (MSc. in Horticulture)

Email. [email protected]
 CHAPTER -1. INTRODUCTION

 The postharvest physiology of fresh fruit and vegetables has in recent times
become an important subdivision of both plant physiology and horticulture.

 The increased attention afforded postharvest horticulture has mainly been due:

 To the realization that faulty handling practices after harvest can cause large
losses of produce that required large inputs of labor, materials and capital to
grow.
1.1 History of post harvest technology

 Post harvest: refers to a time period from harvest to ultimate utilization,

deterioration or death of the produce.

 Postharvest physiology: is the scientific study of the physiology of living plant

tissues after they have denied further nutrition by picking.
 OR, deals with functional processes in plant material after harvest.
 Continued….
 Postharvest technology (PHT): is the science which deals with quality
maintenance, loss reduction, value enhancement, and by-product utilization of
the harvested agricultural produce.

 Food products may be categorized: as fresh plant produce, processed plant

produce, dairy products, and fresh and processed animal products.

 Of these, fresh plant produce is the only case where the commodity is living
during handling and storage.

 Plant parts that we harvest for food include: seed, tuber, storage root, fruit, nut,
leaves, etc.

 Some plant parts are more suited to storage than others (seed) and storage roots
will store better as they are designed by the plant for preservation.

 Post harvest loss: is any change in quantity or quality of a product after harvest
that prevents or alters its intended use or decrease its value.
 Continued….

Types and Extents of Losses

 Losses can be Quantativee or Qualitative

i. Quantitative loss of food: refer to the quantity of the harvested produce that is decayed
or rotten (amount lost to rotting and decay). OR

 Is measured reduction in the food available for consumption, which may be expressed as,
for instance, weight lost per ton of produce.

ii. Qualitative loss of food: Losses which lower its economic or nutrient value. Due to:
 Spoilage due to pests or diseases,

 Physical or chemical changes due to lack of controlled storage and handling facilities,

 Food contaminated with non-food material, or

 Adverse taste, texture, or other changes due to improper processing.

 Continued….

 Losses can also be classified as

1. Food losses and

2. Food wastes

 Food losses: refer to the decrease in edible food mass throughout the part of the
supply chain that specifically leads to edible food for human consumption.

 Food losses occur at production, postharvest and processing stages in the food supply
chain.

 Food waste: is the loss of edible food due to human action or inaction, such as not
consuming food before its expiration date.

 This is mainly food losses occurring at the end of food chain (retail and final
consumption), which relates to retailers’ and consumers’ behavior.
 Continued….

Losses can also be seen from perspective of

 Resource wastage
 Environmental pollution
 Economic losses
 Social losses
 Health impact

 The issue of food losses is of high importance to combat hunger, raise income and
improve food security in the world’s poorest countries.

 The extent of loss in perishables and durables depends upon type of commodity from 5
to 100%.

 Post harvest losses in developed countries is much less as compared to developing

 Continued….

 Plant parts such as: fruits and vegetables are not designed for preservation and
will, therefore, tend to continue development and die.

 On this basis, plant products can be separated into durables and perishables:

Durables Perishables
Low moisture content usually 10-15% High moisture content usually 50-90%

Small unit size less than one gram Large until size typically 5 grams to 6 kg

Often symmetrical in shape Often asymmetrical in shape

Hard texture Soft texture

Stable- inherent storage life of years Storage life of a few days to months depending on type

Losses mainly caused by external factors Losses caused by external factors mainly moulds and
e.g. mould, insects and rodents bacteria and internal factors e.g.: respiration, sprouting,
ripening etc.
 Continued….

1.2. Importance of postharvest management

 Horticultural products play an important role in the society for food , offers huge
employment opportunities and contributes to the overall economy of the country.

 However, the horticultural products are highly perishable, up to 60% of fresh

commodities are lost qualitatively or quantitatively.

 Reduction of postharvest losses can increase food availability to the growing

world population, decrease the area needed for production, and conserve natural
resources.
 Post harvest management minimizes losses, increase their supply without
bringing additional land under cultivation.
“Quality Cannot be Improved after Harvest but Maintained”.
 Continued….
The needs of postharvest management

 Postharvest losses vary greatly across commodity types, with production areas
and the season of production.

• Losses at the retail, food-service, and consumer levels are estimated at 20

percent in developed countries and about 10 percent in developing countries.

• Overall, about one third of horticultural crops produced are never consumed
by humans.

 According to the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the annual

world production of fruits and vegetables is about ~ 1.5 billion tons.

 That means an average loss of ~ 0.5 billion tons of produce each year which
can feed millions of starving people worldwide.
 Continued….

1.3. Pre- and post- harvest factors influencing post harvest quality
 The quality and condition of fresh produce can not be improved after harvest.

 The adoption of good practices is advisable before and after harvest of fruit and
vegetables.

1.3.1. Pre-harvest factors

i. Cultivar and root stack genotype: It plays an important role in determining

the taste, quality, yield, nutrient composition and post harvest life of fruit and
vegetable.

ii. Water supply (irrigation): Excess rain or irrigation, leads to brittle and easy
damage in leafy vegetables and to reduced tendency to decay.

• Lack of rain or irrigation leads to low juice content and thick skin in citrus fruit.
• Dry condition followed by rain or irrigation leads to growth cracks in tomato or
secondary growth in potatoes.
 Continued….

iii. Soil fertility and use of fertilizers: Lack of nutrients in the soil can seriously
affect the fresh produce at harvest.
 Too much of fertilization can also affect post harvest condition of some produce.

iv. Mineral nutrition: Deficiencies or excess or imbalance of various nutrients are

known to result in disorders that can limit the storage life of many fruit and
vegetables.

v. Foliar nutrient spray: Ca is often considered to be the most important mineral in

determining fruit quality, especially in apples and pears where it has been
demonstrated to reduce metabolic disorders, maintain firmness and reduce decay.

vi. Cultivation practices: Good management practices is very much important in

achieving good yields and quality of fresh produced (weed control, crop hygiene,
pesticides and herbicides, growth regulating chemicals).
 Continued….

1. 3.2. Post harvest factors

a) Physiological deterioration: All fruits and vegetables and root crops are living
plant parts containing in 65-95% water and they continue their living processes
after harvest.

• Their post harvest life depends on their stored food and water loss.

• High temperature, low atmospheric humidity and physical injury maximize the
rate of natural deterioration.

b) Mechanical damage (Physical injury): Careless handling of fresh produce

causes internal injury, which results in abnormal physiological damage.

c) Microorganism (Pest and Diseases): Fresh produce can become infected before
or after harvest by diseases widespread in the air, soil and water.

• Pest damage also play major role.

 Chapter 2: Structure, postharvest quality of fruits and vegetables

2.1. Definition of Fruit and Vegetables

 The botanically fruit: the product of determinate growth from an angiosperms

flowers or inflorescence for the edible, fleshy fruits of commerce.

• The fleshy fruits that arise from expansion of the ovary of the flower.

 Vegetables: do not represent any specific botanical grouping, and exhibit a

wide variety of plant structures.

 Vegetables can be grouped into three based on the edible structures of

vegetables is composed of

a. Seeds and pods;

b. Bulbs, roots and tubers;
c. Flowers, buds, stems and leaves.
 Thus, all parts may be edible depending on species.
 Continued….

2.2. Cellular Components and Their Functions

 The cells of fruit and vegetables are typical plant cells, the principal components.

a) Cell wall: Plant cells are bounded by a more or less rigid cell wall.

 Composed of: cellulose fibres, polymers (pectic substances, hemicelluloses) and

lignins.
 The cell wall is permeable to water and solutes.
 Give structural support to the cell and the plant tissues.

 Within the plasma, the cell contents comprise the cytoplasm and usually one or
more vacuoles.

 The latter are fluid reservoirs containing various solutes, such as sugars, amino
and organic acids, and salts, and are surrounded by a semi-permeable membrane,
the tonoplast.
 Continued….

B. The semi-permeable plasma, is responsible for maintaining the hydrostatic

pressure of the cell,

 Allowing the passage of water, but selectively restricting the movement of

solutes or macromolecules, proteins and nucleic acids.

C. The cytoplasm comprises a fluid matrix of proteins and other macromolecules

and various solutes.

 Important processes which occur in this fluid part of the cytoplasm include the
breakdown of storage reserves of carbohydrate by glycolysis and protein
synthesis.

 The cytoplasm also contains several important organelles, which are membrane-
bound bodies with specialized functions as follows:

1. The nucleus, the largest organelle, is the control center of the cell containing the
genetic information in the form of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid).
 Continued….

2. The mitochondria contain the respiratory enzymes of the tricarboxylic acid

(TCA) cycle and the respiratory electron transport system which synthesize
adenosine triphosphate.

 Mitochondria utilize the products of glycolysis for energy production. Thus they
form the energy powerhouse of the cell.

3. The chloroplasts, found in the green cells, are the photosynthetic apparatus of the
cell.

 They contain the green pigment chlorophyll and the photochemical apparatus for
converting solar (light) energy into chemical energy.

4. Chromoplasts develop mainly from mature chloroplasts when the chlorophyll is

degraded. They contain carotenoids which are the yellow-red pigments in many
fruits.

5. Amyloplasts are the sites of starch grain development, although starch grains are
also found in chloroplasts. Collectively chloroplasts, chromoplasts and Amyloplasts
are known as plastids
 Continued….

6. The Golgi complex: is a series of plate-like vesicles that bud off smaller
vesicles.
 These are probably of importance in cell wall synthesis and secretion of
enzymes from the cell.

7. The endoplasmic reticulum is a network of tubules within the cytoplasm.

 which are the sites of protein synthesis.

 Continued….

2.3. Chemical Composition and Nutritional Value

 People eat a mixed diet from plants and animals including vegetables.

 Vegetables are reagents that improve human nutrition and health with various
phyto-chemicals and bioactivities.

 Vegetables and fruits are excellent sources of nutrients such as: protein,
vitamins, minerals, fiber, and sulfur-containing compounds.

 When eaten together, root (potato, sweet potato) and leguminous (pigeon peas,
beans, lentils) leaves (lettuce, Swiss chard, cabbage) fruits (citrus, mango,
avocado, olive, nuts), they provide all nutritional requirements as well as variety
in flavor and color.
 Continued….
 Overall, fruits and vegetables are composed of: water, carbohydrates, vitamins,
proteins, lipids, minerals, organic acids, volatile compounds, pigments.

1. Water

 Water plays a vital role in the evolution and reproduction cycle and in physiological
processes. It has effects on the storage period length and on the consumption of tissue
reserve substances

 The moisture content in horticultural crops is the most abundant constituent and
ranges from 65% - 95%.

 Vegetables contain generally 90-96% water while for fruit normal water content is
between 80 and 90%.

 It plays no nutritional role but an important component of product quality which

maintains turgidity, freshness, firmness, and succulence of the harvested product.
 Continued….

2. Carbohydrate:

 Carbohydrates are forms of stored energy reserves

 Are the most abundant biochemical constituents, representing (50 - 80%) of the
dry weight & (2% - 40%) of fresh produces.
 They are produced by the process of photosynthesis in green plants.

 Carbohydrates can exist in different forms

i. Simple sugars:- such as, glucose, sucrose, and fructose; (<1%) concentration.
 These carbohydrates have sweet flavor and very important components of quality.

ii. Starch:- is made up of glucose subunits (200 – 200,000 units) and serve as
storage of carbohydrates in vegetables, Cassava, Yam, plantain, potato, sweet potato,
enset, and unripe fruits like banana.
 Continued….

iii. Dietary fiber: exist as cellulose, hemicelluloses and pectin substances, which

makes the structural components of fruits and vegetables cell wall.

 These carbohydrates are not digested by human beings because of the absence of
the enzyme/cellulase/ in the digestive system of humans.

3. Protein and Amino acids

 These substances are found in plants as different combinations: proteins, amino

acids, amides, amines, nitrates, etc.

 The protein content in horticultural products varies between 1–2%, about 5% in

legumes.
 The relative change in the protein and amino acid content and composition in
 Continued….

4. Lipids

 Generally fruit and vegetables contain very low level of fats, below 0.5%.

 However, significant quantities are found in nuts (55%), apricot kernel (40%),
grapes seeds (16%), apple seeds (20%) and tomato seeds (18%).

 Fruits like: avocado and olives contain high concentration of lipids (15 – 20%) and
many seeds in the form of storage compounds.

 Among the lipids, waxes, cutin and subrin are the protective compounds of the outer
surface of plants; found on underground plant part and on healed surface of wounds.

 Waxes are extremely important during postharvest storage; limit water loss from
tissue and impede the invasion of pathogens.
 Continued….

5. Vitamins

 Vitamins are groups of organic compounds required relatively in small amount

for normal metabolism and growth.

 Vitamins function as enzyme systems which facilitate the metabolism of

proteins, carbohydrates and fats, but there their roles in maintaining health may
extend yet further.
 Plant products provide major source of vitamins required by humans.

 Exception would be B12, synthesized only by microorganisms, and vitamin D,

obtained from ultraviolet irradiation.
 Continued….
Table 1.1. Important vitamins derived from fresh produces

Vitamin Name Source

A Retinol From carotene in dark green leaves, tomato,

carrot, papaya, sweet potato
B1 Thiamine Pulses, green vegetables, fruit cereal grains

B2 Riboflavin Green leafy vegetables and pulses

B6 Pyridoxine Bananas, peanuts

PP Niacin (nicotinic acid) Pulses, peanuts

- Folic acid Dark green leaves, broccoli, spinach, beets,

cabbage, lettuce, avocados
C Ascorbic acid Dark green leaves, spinach, cauliflower, sweet
pepper, citrus, guava, mango, papaya
 Continued….

 Vitamins are two classes based on their solubility:

i. Water-soluble vitamins C and several members of the vitamin B complex. like: (thiamine,
riboflavin, nicotinic acid, panthothenic acid, pyridoxine, biotin, folic acid, and ascorbic acid).

ii. Lipid-soluble vitamins are stored in the body in moderate amount; as a consequence, a
consistent daily intake is not essential.

 Their absorption by the body depends upon the normal absorption of fat from the
diet.E

 The lipid-soluble vitamins are vitamin A, D E, and K.btamins are vi

 and K.
 The water soluble vitamins, however tend not to be stored and a fairly constant day-
to-day supply is required.
 Continued….

6. Minerals
 Mineral substances are present as salts of organic or inorganic acids or as complex organic
combinations (chlorophyll, lecithin, etc.

 All vegetables and fruits contain important minerals, such as potassium, calcium,
magnesium, phosphorus, iron, and zinc.

 Vegetables are richer in mineral substances as compared with fruits. The mineral substance
content is normally between 0.60 and 1.80% and more than 60 elements are present.

 Vegetables rich in minerals are: spinach, carrots, cabbage and tomatoes. Mineral rich fruit
includes: strawberries, cherries, peaches and raspberries.

 Vegetables usually contain more calcium than fruit; green beans, cabbage, onions and
beans contain more than 0.1% calcium. It have protective effects in some types of cancer,
most recently colon cancer.
 Continued….

7. Organic acids
 Organic acids are major components of fruits and some vegetables.

 The acidity of fruits arises from the organic acids that are stored in the vacuole,
and their composition can vary depending on the type of fruit.

 Fruit contains natural acids, such as: citric acid in oranges and lemons, malic
acid of apples, and tartaric acid of grapes. These acids give the fruits tartness
and slow down bacterial spoilage.

 Organic acids share a significant portion of the characteristic flavour, both taste
and odour.
 Continued….

8. Volatile compounds: are gaseous at ambient temperature.

They are sources of aroma of foods, ornamental and floral species.

Include esters, lactones, alcohols, acids, aldehydes, ketones, acetyls,

hydrocarbons, and some phenols, ethers.

Volatile compounds synthesized in three different ways.

1. Naturally by enzymes found within tissue, creates odour of fresh fruits,

vegetables and flowers.

2. Enzymatically during damage to the tissue of the product.

3. Direct chemical reactions (heating, cooking, during processing).

Synthesis and degradation of volatiles will continue after harvest, but it is not
desirable and lead to quality deterioration.
Chapter 3: Physiological and biochemical aspects of produce development.

3.1. Growth, maturation, ripening & senescence

 The lives of fruit and vegetables can be conveniently divided into four major
physiological stages following initiation or germination.

 These are: growth, maturation, ripening and senescence. However, clear

distinction between the various stages is not easily made.

i. Growth: refers to the time of active cell division and enlargement, leading to
irreversible increase in size and volume, which accounts for the final size of the
produce.

ii. Maturity: refers to the time when the plant has completed active vegetative
growth and arrived at the stage of flowering and seed production.
 Continued….

 Maturation usually commences before growth ceases and includes different

activities in different commodities.

 Growth and maturation are often collectively referred to as the development

phase.

iii. Ripening: refers to the sequence of changes in texture, colour and flavour as a
result of physiological and biochemical change.

 It is a set of processes which qualitatively transform the mature fruit from a non-
palatable to a palatable or edible condition.

iv. Senescence: is defined as the period when anabolic (synthetic) biochemical

processes give way to catabolic (degradative) processes, leading to ageing and finally
death of the tissue.

 Development and maturation of fruit are completed only when it is attached to the
plant, but ripening and senescence may proceed on or off the plant.
Continued….
 Continued….

3.2. Changes during ripening and storage life

 The ripening fruit undergoes many physicochemical changes after harvest that
determines the quality of the fruit purchased by the consumer.

 Ripening transforms a physiologically mature but inedible plant organ into a

visually attractive olfactory and taste sensation.

 Ripening marks the completion of development of a fruit and the commencement

of senescence, and it is normally an irreversible event.

 Ripening is the result of a complex of changes, many of them probably

occurring independently of one another.

 The principal difference between climacteric and the non-climacteric fruit is the
presence of the respiratory peak that is characteristic of climacteric fruits.
 Continued….

3.2.1. Physico-chemical changes during ripening

 Seed maturation, Colour changes, Abscission (detachment from parent plant),

 Changes in respiration rate, Changes in rate of ethylene production, Changes in

tissue permeability,

 Softening: changes in composition of pectic substances,

 Changes in carbohydrate composition, Organic acid changes, Protein changes,

 Production of flavour volatiles, Development of wax on skin

 Continued….

3.2.2. Changes in composition

 At stage of the growth and development of fruit and vegetables, the it is

recognized by the consumer as having attained optimum eating condition.

 This desirable quality is not associated with any universal change, but is
attained in various ways in different tissues.

a. Water: After harvest, during storage and ripening, fruit and vegetable lose
water as a result of respiration transpiration and exchange of gas, resulting in
water loss.

 Loss of water depends upon: RH, temperature, anatomical structure and the
rate of transpiration and respiration.

 When the loss is more than 5-10% fruit and vegetable start shrivel and become
unusable.
 Continued….

b. Colour: is the most obvious change, which occurs in many fruits and is the major
criterion used by consumers to determine whether the fruit is ripe or unripe.

 The most common change is the loss of green colour (presence of chlorophyll).
With a few exceptions avocado and Granny Smith apple.

 The loss of green colour is due to: degradation of the chlorophyll.

 The principal agents responsible for this degradation are:

- pH changes, oxidative systems and chlorophyllases.

- also associated with the synthesis of pigments ranging from yellow to red.

 Carotenoids may be synthesized during the development stages on the plant, but
they are masked by the presence of chlorophyll and become visible after
chlorophyll degradation.
 Continued….

C. Carbohydrates: The greatest change associated with ripening is breakdown of

carbohydrate polymers, which is total conversion of starch to sugar.

D. Organic acids: Usually organic acids decline during ripening. Except, banana
and pineapple, where the highest levels are attained at the full ripe stage.

E. Nitrogenous compounds: Proteins and free amino acids are minor constituents
of fruit and, as far as are known have no role in determining eating quality.

 During the climacteric phase of many fruits, there is a decrease in free amino
acids which often reflects an increase in protein synthesis.

F. Aroma: Aroma plays an important part in the development of optimal eating

quality in most fruit.
 It is due to the synthesis of many volatile organic compounds during the
ripening.
 Continued….

3. 3. Internal & external factors regulating respiration

 Respiration: is the process by which stored organic materials (carbohydrates,

proteins, fats) are broken down into simple end products with a release of energy.

 Horticultural produces respire by taking up O2, giving off CO2 and heat.

C6H12O6+ 6O2 = 6CO2 + 6H2O + 682kc energy (heat).

 Therefore, losses of stored food reserves (glucose) and moisture hasten

senescence and thereby reduce food value, loss of flavor (especially sweetness).

 Before harvest, losses due to respiration and transpiration are replaced by flow
of sap, which contain H2O, photosynthates & minerals.

 These functions continue after harvest, but the produce is removed from mother
plant, thus entirely depend on own food reserves & moisture.
 Continued….

 In general, the rate of deterioration of harvested commodities is

proportional to their respiration rate.

 Commodities with high respiration rates will have short potential storage
lives. While with low respiration rates will have long potential storage
lives.

 According to their respiration behavior during maturation and ripening,

fruits are classified to either climacteric or non-climacteric.

 Climacteric fruits: show a large increase in respiration and ethylene

production during ripening.

 Non-climacteric fruits: show no change in their generally low respiration

and ethylene production rates during ripening.
 Continued….

Factors affecting the rate of respiration

- Temperature - Type of commodity

- Variety - Stage of maturity
- Climacteric behavior - Availability of oxygen
- Presence of carbon dioxide - Ethylene
- Other growth regulators - Other stresses (Stress, injuries,)

 Temperature: It is the most important factor, in which many enzymes activity

is influenced.

 The rate of metabolism increases as the temperature is increased, and

decreases as temperatures decreased.

 Generally, for every 10ºC increase in temperature, respiration rate increased by

twofold (doubled).
 Continued….

 Type of commodity
 Respiration rate differs for different commodities.

 In general, leafy & tender vegetables (spinach, peas, corn, broccoli) have: very high
rates of respiration, while vegetables like potato & onion: have lower rate of
respiration.

 Fruits with well developed skin (Apple, orange, melons) have: lower rate than those
with soft skinned (strawberry & raspberry).

 Respiratory rate is generally high in developing stage which generally decrease as

the tissues matures.

 There are two types of fruits

– Climacteric fruits: Manifest appearance of CO 2 or ethylene peak coinciding with

ripening or senesce.
– Non-climacteric fruits: are fruits that don’t show respiratory or ethylene peak.
 Continued….
Table :Typical rates of respiration for selected produce

Units of Resp.
Storage organs
mg CO2/Kg/h (dormant) Fruits Green vegetables Flowers
Very low <5 Nuts
Low 5-10 Onion, Potato apple, citrus grapes
Moderate Carrot banana, plum, fig, pepper, cabbage, lettuce
10-20 tomato, peach, pear
High strawberry, blackberry, lima bean cauliflower
20-40 raspberry, avocado
Very high Snap bean, cut flowers
40-60 Brussels sprouts,
Extremely high asparagus, peas, Broccoli
> 60 spinach
 Continued….

Figure . the climacteric pattern of respiration in ripening fruit.

 Continued….
III. Gases composition

 The rate of respiration is affected by levels of O 2 and CO2 , ethylene and other
gases.

 Availability of oxygen:

 Respiration can take place with or without O 2.

 But anaerobic respiration is undesirable because of off-flavor production.

 Oxygen levels higher than air (21%) don’t necessarily increase respiration rate
while levels below 20% decrease the respiration rate.

 The minimum oxygen level necessary to maintain aerobic respiration in a storage

chamber is called Extinction point (EP).

 Storage chambers should have proper ventilation to maintain O 2 level above the
EP.

 Waxing alters the skin porosity and rate of diffusion of CO and O .

Continued….
 Continued….

 Presence of CO2

 CO2 is a product of respiration.

 Presence of excess CO2 favors suppression of respiration.

 Generally, CO2 concentration up to 5% has beneficial effects in reducing

respiration.
 While at higher concentrations it also has fungicidal effect. However, the product
must be tolerant to high CO 2 level. E.g. Strawberry.
 Continued….

 Ethylene: It can be produced by almost all tissues of higher plants.

 It acts as a plant growth regulator, or hormone, controlling many processes

such as ripening of fruits ad senescence.

 It has a very important role in postharvest horticultural crops, both beneficial

and detrimental.

 Controlling the gas concentrations in the store alters respiration rates and
removal of ethylene can retard ripening.

 Moisture content of the tissue

• As respiration results in the production of water, if there is insufficient

ventilation as a commodity respires, there may be an increase in humidity as
water is released.

• Condensation of water on the produce may lead to problems of rotting.

 Continued….

 Wounding and infection

• When produce is physically damaged or is infected by rotting pathogens, the

rate of respiration tends to increase.

• This is as a result of the tissues mobilizing various defense and repair

mechanisms all of which require extra energy.
 Continued….

Assignment-1

1. Difference between Growth, maturity, ripening, senescence?

2. What are the Changes during ripening and storage life?

3. How respiration can be reduced?

4. What types of postharvest management practices do you know in your locality

that can reduce respiration?

5. What is the difference between climacteric and non- climacteric fruits?

6. List and discuss the internal and external factors that affect the rate of
respiration in fruits and vegetables.

7. What are the USDA recommended storage temperatures and relative

humidities for various fruits and vegetables?
Chapter 4: THE ROLE OF ETHYLENE IN POSTHARVEST HORTICULTURE

4.1. The role of ethylene (C22H4) in postharvest

 Ethylene (C2H4, H2C=CH2) is a simple gaseous organic molecule/plant.

 As a plant hormone, it is involved in regulation of growth, ripening, senescence

and abscission processes.

 Ethylene is naturally synthesized in plants, but also evolves from engines and
fires.

 It is biologically active at very low concentrations (ppm levels).

 Commercially used as ripening agent.

 It is produced in trace amounts as a result of respiration.

 It has profound influence on respiration rate & ripening of fruits.

 Continued….

 Developmental processes controlled by ethylene.

1. Ripening

• Natural ripening is initiated and controlled by ethylene, produced by the fruit

itself, but can be induced artificially by the addition of exogenous ethylene.

• The internal concentration varies widely for Climacteric fruits during ripening,
but that of non-Climacteric changes little during development and ripening.

 NB. Ethylene applied at conc. as low as 0.1-1.0 (µml/L for a day will be
sufficient to hasten full ripening of Climacteric fruits

• In contrast, applied ethylene merely causes a transient increase in the

respiration of non-Climacteric fruits.
Continued….
 Continued….

2. Flowering

 Ethylene stimulates flowering in some species only, like: Mango and Pineapple.

 However, many cases ethylene may even prevent bud opening in cut flowers.
Certain cut flowers can be extremely sensitive even to very low levels of
ethylene.

3. Sprouting

 Sprout development is stimulated by ethylene. E.g., Seed potatoes can be

induced to sprout by the addition of ethylene.
4. Mobilisation of defense mechanisms

 Ethylene is often produced under stress conditions, as a signal to the plant to

mobilize defense mechanisms. Like:

-Ethylene production stimulates wound healing.

- On infection by pathogens, ethylene levels will also increase defense mechanism
 Continued….
5. Senescence and abscission

 Ethylene stimulates abscission and many other senescence processes. Like:

• Loss of green colour, as chlorophyll breaks down.

• Stem browning of grapes,
• Abscission of calyxes, florets and leaves,

 Beneficial uses of ethylene in postharvest

• Commercial postharvest applications of ethylene are used to:

1. Promote full and uniform ripening of bananas, avocado, mango and green-
harvested tomatoes.
2. Promote color change (degreening) in citrus fruit.
 Continued….

 Regulation of ethylene biosynthesis: Generally, ethylene production

increases:

 With maturity at harvest,

 After physical damage (dropping, wounding).

 In decayed fruit,

 At increasing temperatures up to 30C

 During stresses (water stress, chilling, etc.)

 On the other hand, ethylene is reduced by:

 Low storage temperatures

 Reduced O2 levels (below 8%)

 Elevated CO2 levels (above 2%).

 Continued….

 Preventive measures to reduce ethylene effects

1. Eliminate the sources of ethylene:
Do not hold ripen fruit near ethylene sensitive commodities
Use electric powered forklifts
The loading area should be away from handling and storage areas.
Remove decayed pellets of fruit
Do not smoke or burn fires in the packinghouse area

2.Ventilation: harvested produce synthesize ethylene. Therefore, ventilation using

fan can effectively remove excess ethylene.

3. Ethylene absorbers: ethylene may be absorbed from storage rooms by using

chemical scavengers, such as potassium permanganate and charcoal.
4. Inhibition of ethylene action: use of 1-MCP which is a very effective inhibitor of
ethylene. It is now being licensed for use in fruit and vegetables.
 CHAPTER 5: MAJOR CAUSES OF POSTHARVEST LOSSES AND
MANIPULATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES

 Fruits and vegetables are highly perishable products, especially during the
postharvest phase, when considerable losses can occur.

 The ultimate goal of PHM of horticultural produce: preserving the quality and
prolonging the shelf life of the produce (i.e. to keep the produce without
deterioration).

Causes of Postharvest Losses of Fruits and Vegetables

1.Mechanical Damage: 2.Non-parasitic Disorders: 3.Postharvest Diseases/Pest:

a) Improper harvest i. Postharvest Environment  Fungi

b) Rough handling ii. Physiological Disorders  Bacteria

 Continued….

5.1. Temperature, Atmospheric Composition and Humidity.

 Temperature

 Temperature in a storage room should normally be maintained at the desired

temperature for commodities being stored.

 Temperatures below the optimum range for a given fruit or a vegetable will
cause freezing or chilling injuries,

 Temperatures above, depending upon produce, will reduce storage life.

 A wide temperature fluctuation can result in rapid weight and water loss
depending upon maturity of produce.
 Continued….

2. Relative humidity

 For most perishable fresh fruits and vegetables, the relative humidity should be
maintained between 90 to 95.

 The relative humidity below this range will result in a moisture loss from the
produce, as the result the produce will be shriveled and limp.

 Relative humidity if higher than 95 may cause excessive growth of

microorganisms.
 Refrigeration equipment must be especially designed to maintain a higher
relative humidity.

3. Atmospheric composition

 It is controlled by: addition of gases, allowing the commodity to produce or

consume gases or removing undesirable gases from the storage room.
 Continued….

 The ambient air contains naturally ~78% N 2, 21% O2 , and 0.03% CO2.

 As the perishable fruits and vegetables undergo respiration, consume O 2 and release
CO2.

 Gases such as: CO, CO2, N2 and ethylene can be added to a facility from a bottled
supply (or dry ice in the case of CO2) or produced by on-site generators.

 High concentrations of undesirable gases are removed by scrubbing (removing)

devices.

E.g. CO2 can be absorbed in water or lime;

 C2H4 and other volatiles can be removed by potassium permanganate, catalytic

oxidation or UV light; and

 O2 can be removed by using it in a combustion process or by a molecular sieve.

 In certain cases external concentrations of gases are desirable and the accumulated
gases can be adjusted by ventilation.
 Continued….
5.2 Mechanical Injuries

 Mechanical damage (Physical injury): Careless handling of fresh produce

causes internal injury, which results in abnormal physiological damage.

 Physical damage (surface injuries, bruising, vibration damage) is a main

contributor to deterioration.

 The damaged areas become brown (because leakage of phenolic compounds),

accelerate water loss, stimulate ethylene production, and provide sites for
pathogen invasion.

 Like surface injuries, impact bruising, vibration bruising which leads to

browning and damaged tissues.

 Mechanical injuries: accelerate water loss, provide sites for fungal/bacterial

infections, increase CO2 production (respiration) and increase ethylene
production.
 Continued….

 Losses caused by mechanical injuries were:

 Reduction in fresh weight

 Loss in firmness
 Loss in flavor and aroma
 Losses of vitamins
 Reduction in value because of quality changes
 Increased susceptibility to chilling injuries, physiological disorders,
pathogen invasion and accelerated rate of senescence.
 Continued….

5.3 Physiological Disorders

 Physiological deterioration: All fruits and vegetables and root crops are living plant
parts containing in 65-95% water and they continue their living processes after
harvest.

 Their post harvest life depends on their: stored food and water loss.

 Physiological disorders caused by improper storage conditions like:

- Low humidity
- Chilling injuries
- Low O2 injuries
- Freezing injuries
- High CO2 injuries
- Heat damage
 Chilling injuries
 Tropical and subtropical fruits are sensitive to low non-freezing temperatures
below 15C.
 The most common symptoms of chilling injuries include: Surface and internal
browning, pitting, water soaked areas, uneven ripening or failure to ripen,
development of off flavors, and increased decay incidence.
 Continued….

 Freezing injuries

 Storing produce below their freezing point causes immediate collapse of the
tissue and complete loss.

Chilling injuries in citrus Chilling injuries in yam, peach and mango

 Continued….

5.4. Postharvest Diseases

 Fresh produce can become infected: before or after harvest by diseases

widespread in the air, soil and water.

 Horticultural crops are: very susceptible to be attacked by fungi and bacteria,

by comparison to grain crops which are harvested and stored relatively dry.

 Horticultural produce, being rich in moisture and nutrients, serves as a suitable

substrate for the development of microorganisms.

 Postharvest diseases refer to: the decay, rotting and deterioration of fruits and
vegetables caused by microorganisms, mainly fungi and bacteria.

 Viruses are seldom involved in postharvest diseases. Only in certain cases,

viruses may render the products less marketable, e.g. as in internal brown spot
of yams.
 Continued….

 Fungi are by far the major causes of postharvest diseases of fruits and vegetables.

o Particularly in fruits, bacteria are quite rare. Fruits are more prone to fungal
attack than bacteria.

o Fungi can thrive in the acid conditions usually found in fruit (e.g. lemons have
pH 2.5 and bananas pH 5).

o Bacteria will not tolerate acid conditions and are more often found in vegetables.

o Among fungi, the major pathogens causing postharvest diseases of fruits and
vegetables include:

• Alternaria, Botrytis, Botryosphaeria, Colletotrichum, Diplodia, Monilinia,

Penicillium, Phomopsis, Rhizopus, and Sclerotinia.

o The major bacterial pathogens that cause postharvest diseases are from the
genera Erwinia and Pseudomonas.
 Continued….

Alternaria

Botrytis
Colletotrichum

Rhyzopus
 CHAPTER 6: POST-HARVEST HANDLING TECHNOLOGIES

6.1. Harvesting and Preparation for Market

 “Quality cannot be improved after harvest, only maintained” therefore it is

important to harvest fruits, vegetables, and flowers at the proper stage and size
and at peak quality.

 Immature or over mature produce may not last as long in storage as that of
picked at proper maturity.

 Harvest should be completed during the coolest time of the day (usually in the
early morning), and produce should be kept shaded in the field.

 Crops destined for storage should be: free as possible from skin breaks, bruises,
spots, rots, decay, and other deterioration.

 Damage can be prevented by: handle the crop gently; harvesting at proper
maturity; harvesting dry whenever possible; and avoiding over or under-packing
of containers.
 Continued….

 Harvesting methods

 In general there are two types of harvesting methods. These are: hand harvesting
and mechanical harvesting.

 The method of harvesting is determined by:

• Nature of the crop, delicacy of crop

• The importance of speed during and directly after the harvesting
• The cost of labour/ machinery.
• The quality requirements of the market whether for fresh consuming or
processing.

Advantages hand harvesting

• Humans can accurately select for maturity, accurate grading and multiple
harvest
• Humans can handle fruit with a minimum of damage
• Rate of harvest can be easily increased by hiring more workers
 Continued….

 Mechanical harvest

• Mechanical harvest is not presently used for: most fresh market crops because
machines are rarely capable of selective harvest, they tend to damage the
commodity, and they are expensive.

• Mechanical harvest used with commodities which can be: harvested at one time
and are not sensitive to mechanical injury (roots, tubers, and nuts).

• Rapid processing after harvest will minimize the effects of mechanical injury.

 Avantages : rapid harvest, improved conditions for workers, and reduced

problems associated with hiring and managing hand laborers.

 Disadvantage:

• Damage to perennial crops e.g. damage to bark from a tree shaker

• Lack of processing and handling capacity to handle the high rate of harvest
• Social impacts of lower labor requirements
 Continued….

6.2. Cold Chain Management of Harvested Produces

Temperature

Is the most important factor governing the postharvest life fruits and vegetables
plants.

The optimum storage temperature varies depending upon spp.

For temperate and subtropical spps temperature just above freezing point is
optimum.

Most tropical fruits and vegetables store well at +10C, however low
temperature causes chilling injury.

Increase in temperature hastens ripening and increases ethylene (C2H4)

production.
 Continued….

Temperature control

– Product protection from sun heat (full sunlight) after harvesting.

– Pre-cooling treatments to remove field heat.
– Use refrigeration and maintaining the cold chain marketing system

Cool chain for export quality:

 Cold store at the farm
 Refrigerated truck from farm to the airport
 Cold store at the airport
 Loading the aircrafts directly from the cold store in a short time
 Cargo aircraft maintains cold store temperature in hold
 Off loading direct into a cold store in the receiving country
 Refrigerated truck to market and then to the customers
 Continued….

6.3. Packaging
 When areas of consumption are far away from the areas of production packaging
is required.

 Now with increasing urbanization and increasing international trade, packaging

is becoming increasingly important.

 The two main functions of packaging are:

i. To assemble the products into convenient units for handling.

ii. To protect the products during distribution, storage and marketing (to extend
the marketable life).
 Continued….

Packaging materials
 Modern packaging must comply (fulfill) with the following requirements:

o Must have sufficient mechanical strength to protect the contents during

handling, transport, and stacking.

 Must be free of chemical substances that could transfer to the produce and
become toxic to man.

 Must meet handling and marketing requirements in terms of weight, size, and
shape.

 Should allow rapid cooling of the contents. Furthermore, the permeability of

plastic films to respiratory gases could also be important.

 Ease of opening and closing might be important in some marketing situations.

 The package must either exclude light or be transparent.

 Continued….

 The package should be appropriate for retail presentations.

 The package should be designed for ease of disposal, re-use, or recycling.

 Cost of the package in relation to value and the extent of contents protection
required should be as low as possible.

 Classification of packaging: packages can be classified as follows:

 Flexible sacks; made of plastic jute, such as bags (small sacks) and nets
 Wooden crates
 Cartons (fiber board boxes)
 Plastic crates
 Pallet boxes and shipping containers
 Baskets made of woven strips of leaves, bamboo, plastic, etc.
 Continued….

 On-Field Temperature Management before packing

 Generally, produce should be harvested in the morning, coolest possible

temperature during the delay between harvest and initial cooling.

 Produce should be shaded to protect it from solar heat gain.

 Reduce the time between picking and initial cooling; to decrease transpiration
and respiration that is high rates at field temperatures.

 Relative humidity management

Low humidity causes water loss, desiccation and wilting.

Humidity - horticultural produces should be kept at 80-95% RH for

maintenance of freshness/turgidity.

Produce start showing wilting symptoms when they have lost 10-15% of their
fresh weight.
 Continued….
Common packinghouse managements

 Preliminary postharvest operations

 Washing and sanitation, curing of roots, tubers, and bulb crops

 Operations prior to packaging

 Fruits and Vegetables are subjected to treatments to improve appearance and

maintain quality.

 Like: Cleaning, Disinfection, Waxing, and tagging (brand name stamping on

individual fruits).

 Cleaning: includes chemical treatments - insecticides and pesticides in the field.

 Most of these chemicals are poisonous to humans, even in small concentrations.

 Therefore, all traces of chemicals must be removed from produce before packing.
 Continued….

 Disinfection: After washing fruits and vegetables, disinfectant agents are added
to the soaking tank to avoid diseases development.

 Waxing: Artificial wax is applied to:

 Provides a protective coating over entire surface

 Seals small cracks and dents in the rind or skin

 Seals off stem scars or base of petiole

 Reduces moisture loss and respiration rate

 Extends shelf life and enhances sales appeal.

 Sorting: is necessary to remove blemished and damaged fruit and vegetables and
to grade fruit according to market specifications.
 Continued….

 Initial Cooling Methods

 Produces usually cooled to its long-term storage temperature with various

methods.
 Room cooling: Produce is placed in an insulated room equipped with
refrigeration.

 Forced-air cooling: Fans are used in conjunction with a cooling room to pull
cool air through packages of produce.
 Hydrocooling: Dumping produce into cold water, or running cold water over
produce, is an efficient way to remove heat, and can serve as a means of
cleaning at the same time.
 Vacuum- and water spray vacuum-cooling: produce is enclosed in a chamber
in which a vacuum is created.
 Continued….

 As the vacuum pressure increases, water within the plant evaporates and
removes heat from the tissues.

• To reduce water loss, water is sometimes sprayed on the produce prior to

placing it in the chamber. This process is called hydrovac cooling.

• Package icing uses crushed ice to cool and maintain product temperature and is
used for a very few commodities.

• Transport cooling in refrigerated ships and containers is used for products,

such as bananas, in areas with no cooling infrastructure.
 Continued….
6.4 Storage
 Compatibility of fruits and vegetables for storage:

 Worst storage conditions are common reason for Post harvest losses.

 Factors determining compatibility in mixing various fruits and vegetables

together during transport and storage:

1. Temperature: Fruits and vegetables are divided into two groups:

a. Non-chilling-sensitive commodities kept best at temperatures above their

freezing points (-2 to -0.5°C) and up to 2°C (apple, broccoli, grape,
lettuce, and pear).

b. Chilling-sensitive commodities kept best at 5°C to 15°C, depending on the

commodity, cultivar, maturity-ripeness stage, and storage duration.
(avocado, banana, citrus fruits, mango, melons, and tomato).
 Continued….

2. Relative Humidity: With the exception of a few commodities (garlic and onion
bulbs), fresh produce should be kept at 90-95% RH to minimize water loss.

3. Ethylene: Many ripening fruits (apple, pear, peach, banana, and tomato)
produce ethylene gas, which can be detrimental to ethylene-sensitive
commodities (avocado, broccoli, cabbage, carrot, kiwifruit, lettuce,
persimmon, and watermelon).

4. Odor volatiles: Commodities with strong odors (garlic, leek, onion, pepper)
should not be mixed with commodities that can absorb these odors (apple,
avocado, citrus fruits, grape, and pear).

5. Sulfur dioxide: Some table grapes are shipped with SO2 generating pads to
control decay caused by Botrytis cinerea.

 These grapes should be stored alone because SO2 can damage most other
fruits and vegetables.

6. Organic produce: Ideally, organically grown produce should be handled and

stored separately from conventionally grown produce.
 Continued….
Pre storage treatments: Curing, Cleaning, Sorting, Waxing, Heat treatments,

 Treatment with postharvest fungicides (in the wax or separately) at

concentrations that assure that the residue level.

 E.g. Chlorine-based solutions, peroxyacetic acid (PAA), organic acids, hydrogen

peroxide (H2O2) and electrolysed water.

 Special chemical treatments: (sprout inhibitors, scald inhibitors, calcium,

growth regulators, ethylene-action inhibitors: such as 1-methylcyclopropene).

 Fumigation (with methyl bromide or phosphine) or irradiation for insect control

to satisfy quarantine requirements of the importing country.

 Ethylene treatment to de-greening citrus fruits (1-5 ppm ethylene in air), and for
ripening climacteric fruits, such as avocado, banana, mango, and tomato (100-
150 ppm ethylene in air).
 Continued….

 Traditional and modern storage structures

 The marketable life of fresh fruits and vegetables can be extended by prompt
storage in an environment that maintains product quality.

 The desired environment can be obtained when: air circulation, RH, and
sometimes atmosphere composition is controlled.

 Traditional storage systems are: insitu, sand, pits, clamps, windbreaks, cellars,
barns, evaporative cooling, and night ventilation.

1. In situ/Natural/field storage: involves delaying the harvest of fruits and

vegetables until the crop is required.

 It can be used in root crops, such as cassava, citrus and some other fruits are left
on the tree.
 Continued….

2. Sand or coir:
 This storage technique is used to store potatoes for longer periods of time,
which involves covering the commodity underground with sand.

3. Pits or trenches:
 Pits are dug at the edges of the field where the crop has been grown.

 The pit or trench is lined with straw or other organic material and filled with the
crop being stored, then covered with a layer of organic material followed by a
layer of soil.

 Holes are created with straw at the top to allow for air ventilation, as lack of
ventilation may cause problems with rotting of the crop.
 Continued….

4. Clamps:

 The potatoes piled on the ground in an elongated conical heap.

 Sometimes straw is laid on the soil before the potatoes.

 Straw thickness should be from 15 to 25 cm when compressed.

 After 2 weeks, the clamp is covered with soil to a depth of 15–20 cm, but this
may vary depending on the climate.

6. Cellars:

 These underground or partly underground rooms are often beneath a house.

 This location has good insulation, providing cooling in warm ambient

conditions and protection from excessively low temperatures in cold climates
 Continued….

7. Barns: is a farm building for sheltering, processing, and storing agricultural products,
animals, and implements.

8. Night ventilation:
An external air is allowed to ventilate store room when the outside temperature at night
becomes lower than the temperature inside.
The storage room should be well insulated when the crop is placed inside.
Continued….
 Continued….

Traditional storage
structures
 Continued….

Modern storage systems

 Continued….

 Modified atmosphere and controlled atmosphere packaging

 Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP): "packaging of a perishable products in

an atmosphere which has been modified.

 So, that its composition is other than that of air” (about 78% N2, 21% O2, and
0.03% CO2); generally, O2 below 8% and CO2 above 1% are used.

 Whereas controlled atmosphere storage: maintaining a fixed concentration of

gases surrounding the product by careful monitoring and addition of gases.

 The gaseous composition of fresh MAP foods is constantly changing due to

chemical reactions and microbial activity.

 Gas exchange between the pack headspace and the external environment may
also occur because of permeation across the package material.
 Continued….

 Gases used in modified atmosphere packaging: The three main gases used in
modified atmosphere packaging are O2, CO2 and N2.

 The choice of gas is very dependent upon the food product being packed.

 These gases are commonly used to balance safe shelf life extension with
optimal organoleptic properties of the food.

 Noble or 'inert' gases such as argon are in commercial use for products such as
coffee and snack products.

 Experimental use of carbon monoxide (CO) and sulphur dioxide (SO 2) has
also been reported.
 Continued….

 Carbon dioxide: is a colourless gas with a slight pungent odour at very high
concentrations.

 It is an asphyxiant and slightly corrosive in the presence of moisture.

 CO2 dissolves readily in water (1.57 g/kg at 100 kPa, 20°C) to produce carbonic
acid (H2CO3) that increases the acidity of the solution and reduces the pH.

 This gas is also soluble in lipids and some other organic compounds.

 The solubility of CO2 increases with decreasing temperature.

 For this reason, the antimicrobial activity of CO 2 is markedly greater at temperatures

below 10° C than at 15° C or higher.

 This has significant implications for MAP of foods.

 The high solubility of CO2 can result in pack collapse due the reduction of
headspace volume.
 Continued….

 Oxygen: Oxygen is highly reactive gas, supports combustion and has a low
solubility in water.

 Oxygen promotes several types of deteriorative reactions in foods including fat

oxidation, browning reactions and pigment oxidation.

 Most of the common spoilage bacteria and fungi require oxygen for growth.

 Therefore, to increase shelf life of foods the pack atmosphere should contain a
low concentration of residual oxygen.

 It should be noted that in some foods a low concentrations of oxygen can result
in quality and safety problems (for example senescence in fruit and vegetables,
growth of food poisoning bacteria).

 Thus, this must be taken into account when selecting the gaseous composition
for a packaged food.
 Continued….

 Nitrogen: is a relatively un-reactive gas with no odour, taste, or colour.

 It has a lower density than air, non-flammable and has a low solubility in water
and other food constituents.

 N2 doesn’t support the growth of aerobic microbes, therefore inhibits the

growth of aerobic spoilage but does not prevent the growth of anaerobic
bacteria.

 The low solubility of nitrogen in foods can be used to prevent pack collapse by
including sufficient N2 in the gas mix to balance the volume decrease due to
CO2 going into solution.
 Continued….

6.5. Preservation and Processing

• The preservation of fruit and vegetables entails the integral or partial utilization
of the raw material.

• In some cases, during the process it becomes necessary to add a packing

medium, syrup or brine, while in others the raw material is used alone, as in
frozen products.

• The raw material may be processed differently, depending upon the product to
be obtained, for instance, as vegetables in sauce, soups, jellies, pickles and
juices,.


The case of the pineapple is a good example, for the same raw material
may be processed into canned slices or rings, pulps or juices.
 Continued….
 Physical method of preservation

 Application of heat: Sterilization and Pasteurization

A. Sterilization
 By sterilization we mean complete destruction of micro-organisms.

B. Pasteurization: thermal treatment that is less drastic than sterilization, but

sufficient to inactivate the disease-causing microorganisms present in the
foods.

 it inactivates most of the vegetative microorganism forms but not the spore-
bearing forms, which is why it is suitable for short-term preservation.
 Furthermore, pasteurization fosters the inactivation of enzymes.
 Continued….

 Removal of heat

 Preservation by Freezing


Freezing is one of the oldest and most widely used methods of food
preservation, which allows preservation of taste, texture, and nutritional
value in foods better.


It is a combination of the beneficial effects of low temperatures at which micro
organisms cannot grow, chemical reactions are reduced, and cellular
metabolic reactions are delayed.


Limitation of freezing is the danger that pathogens deactivated (but not killed)
by the process will once again become active when the frozen food thaws.
 Continued….

 Preservation by drying/dehydration

• It is the oldest method of food preservation practice; by directly exposing the

product to sunlight.

• The crop was spread on the ground directly or over sacks or mats made from
plant leaves.

• Today, the quality of dried products has improved through a number of

factors, including the following:

o The use of dehydrating equipment for solar and artificial drying, which
increases the efficiency of dehydration.
o The use of chemical pre-treatment to better preserve the color, aroma and
flavor of the products.
 Continued….

 Drying techniques

 Atmospheric forced-air driers : artificially dry fruits and vegetables;

– by passing heated air with controlled relative humidity over the food to be
dried, or
– by passing the food to be dried through the heated air,
 Sub-atmospheric (or vacuum)

• dehydration occurs at low air pressures and includes vacuum shelf, vacuum
drum, vacuum belt, and freeze driers.

• The main purpose of vacuum drying is to enable the removal of moisture at

less than the boiling point under ambient conditions.

 Sun drying : The traditional method, known as ‘sun drying’, involves simply
laying the product in the sun on mats, roofs or drying floors.
 Continued….

o Major disadvantages of this method are

• Contamination of the products by dust, birds and insects – some percentage

will usually be lost or damaged,

• It is labor intensive,

• Nutrients loss, such as vitamin A and the method totally depends on good
weather conditions.
 Continued….
 Preservation by the addition of sugar

• The principle of this technology is to add sugar in a quantity that is necessary

to augment the osmotic pressure of the product's liquid phase at a level which
will prevent microorganism development.

• From a practical point of view, however, it is usual to partially remove water

by boiling from the product to be preserved, with the objective of obtaining a
higher sugar concentration.

• The sugar is added in variable amounts, depending upon the kind of

fruit and the product being prepared.

• In concentrations of 60% in the finished products, the sugar generally assures

food preservation.

• The method is used in the processing of jams, jellies, marmalade and

others.
 Continued….
 Preservation by Irradiation

• Irradiation of food: is the exposure of food to ionizing radiation; either

high-energy electrons or X-rays from accelerators, or by gamma rays.

• The treatment has a range of effects, including killing bacteria, molds and
insect pests, and at higher doses inducing sterility.

• Irradiation also can be used to control sprouting and ripening.

• The technology may be compared to pasteurization; it is sometimes called

'cold pasteurization', as the product is not heated.

• It is not effective against viruses, cannot eliminate toxins already formed by

microorganisms, and is only useful for food of high initial quality.
 Continued….

 Processing
 Reasons for processing

• To increase the postharvest life or to preserve the product by preventing

spoilage due to attacks by micro-organisms or enzymatic activities.

• To render the products edible.

• To reduce the content of plant toxins.

• To add value to the product.

 Methods for processing: for small scale processing the best methods are:
drying, chemical preservation and heat preservation.
 Continued….

 Drying: Fresh products can contain up to 95% water, which support enzyme
activity and growth of micro organisms (reduce storage life).

 By drying the water content is reduced to 10-15%. This reduces micro

organism growth and enzymatic activity (respiration).

 The products can be either sun dried (cheap but less controllable) or dried using
artificial heat/ heaters.

 Processing using chemicals: Preservation with sugars (jam, jellies, fruit

drinks), preservation with salt, pickled in vinegar, fermented or preservation by
adding preservatives.

 Heat treatments: Preservation by heating the products to kill the enzymes and
microorganisms is often used canning or bottling methods, where the containers
are sealed while still hot to prevent contamination of the sterilized bottles.
 Continued….

 Other types of processing:-methods that require higher input (labor,

investment) are:

• Freezing
• Distillation: alcohol or volatile oil
• Extractions edible oil
• Smoking
• Advanced drying methods: ex. freeze-drying
• Partly finished dishes: frozen, dried soups or sauces
 Continued….
6.6. Transportation
 Transportation: most important considerations to consider in the transportation
operation of agricultural products are:

• Mechanical damage: impact, compression, vibration, puncturing etc.

Especially while loading and unloading stacking, rough packing material, over
stacked products and on bumpy roads during transport.

• Maintaining proper T° and RH: refrigerated transportation, controlled RH or

transportation during the night.

• Ensuring product compatibility e.g. climacteric fruits (avocado, apples...) can

produce large amounts of ethylene, which will affect other products.

• Minimizing the cost of transport: affected by distance of transport, mode of

transport, condition of road (asphalt vs. dirt road),

• Nature of the product: perishable/ durable, size and weight, value etc.
 Continued….

 Types of transport:

• There are many types of transportation, the most important once are:
• Human and animal power
• Land transport (road and railway)
• Sea transport (ships and boats)
• Air transport
 THE END

THANKS FOR YOURS

ATTENTION