SPC 2312 Knowledge Based

Systems
Chapter 2 Understanding Knowledge
 Overview
• Definitions
• Cognition
• Expert Knowledge
• Human Thinking and Learning
• Implications for Management

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 Knowledge
• Knowledge encompasses a broad spectrum of
awareness, including facts, concepts,
principles, experiences, skills, and insights.
• It is the product of cognition and perception,
allowing individuals to interpret and
understand the world around them.
• Knowledge is dynamic and context-
dependent, evolving over time through
learning, discovery, and exploration.
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 Knowledge Hierarchy
Knowledge can be organized into a hierarchy,
ranging from basic data to actionable wisdom:
Data:
– At the lowest level of the hierarchy, data represents
raw, unprocessed facts, figures, and symbols.
– Data lacks context, meaning, and interpretation on
its own.
– Examples of data include individual numbers, words,
characters, and symbols.

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 Knowledge Hierarchy
• Information:
– Information is derived from processed data that has
been organized, structured, and contextualized.
– It provides meaning, relevance, and significance to
raw data by connecting it to specific contexts or
domains.
– Information enables individuals to understand
relationships, patterns, and trends within datasets.
– Examples of information include statistics, reports,
summaries, and charts derived from data analysis.
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 Knowledge Hierarchy
• Knowledge:
– Knowledge represents interpreted information that is
internalized, understood, and applied by individuals or
systems.
– It involves insights, principles, concepts, rules, and
procedures that guide reasoning, decision-making, and
problem-solving.
– Knowledge is acquired through learning, experience,
observation, and interaction with the environment.
– Examples of knowledge include theories, principles, rules
of thumb, and best practices within specific domains.
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 Knowledge Hierarchy
• Wisdom:
– At the highest level of the hierarchy, wisdom reflects the
application of knowledge to make sound judgments, decisions,
and actions.
– Wisdom involves the ability to synthesize, evaluate, and apply
knowledge in complex and ambiguous situations.
– It encompasses ethical considerations, values, intuition, and
long-term perspectives.
– Wisdom reflects the capacity to navigate uncertainties, resolve
conflicts, and achieve desirable outcomes.
– Examples of wisdom include leadership, foresight, strategic
thinking, and ethical decision-making in various contexts.
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 Nonalgorithmic Nonprogrammable
(Heuristic)
W ISDOM

KNOWLEDGE

INFORMATION

Algorithmic DATA Programmable

From Data Processing to Knowledge-based Systems

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Knowledge
Knowledge Pyramid
Pyramid
Meta-

Knowledge

Information

Data

Noise
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 Types of Knowledge
• Declarative Knowledge: This type of knowledge involves
facts and information about the world. It answers
questions like "what" and "who."
• Procedural Knowledge: Procedural knowledge describes
how to perform tasks or actions. It involves sequences
of steps or processes to achieve a specific goal.
• Meta-Knowledge: Meta-knowledge is knowledge about
knowledge. It includes information about how
knowledge is organized, validated, and applied within
the system.

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 Types of Knowledge
• Explicit Knowledge: This type of knowledge is
formalized and codified, easily expressed and
communicated, and typically found in documents,
databases, or manuals.
• Tacit Knowledge:
– Tacit knowledge is personal, experiential, and deeply
embedded in individuals' minds.
– It often involves skills, intuition, insights, and mental
models that are difficult to articulate or transfer explicitly.
– Tacit knowledge is crucial for expertise, innovation, and
problem-solving.
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 Types of Knowledge
• Domain-Specific Knowledge:
– Domain-specific knowledge pertains to a particular
field, discipline, or domain of expertise.
– It is specialized and tailored to address the unique
characteristics and requirements of a specific context.
– Domain-specific knowledge encompasses both
explicit and tacit knowledge relevant to a particular
area of inquiry or practice.
– Examples include medical knowledge, legal principles,
engineering principles, and financial regulations.

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 Types of Knowledge
• Meta-Knowledge:
– Meta-knowledge refers to knowledge about knowledge
itself, including its structure, organization, and properties.
– It involves understanding the nature of knowledge, its
acquisition processes, representation schemes, and
utilization strategies.
– Meta-knowledge enables individuals to reflect on their
own knowledge, learning processes, and cognitive abilities.
– Examples include metacognitive strategies, knowledge
management techniques, and theories of learning and
cognition.

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 Types of Knowledge
• Cultural Knowledge:
– Cultural knowledge encompasses beliefs, values,
customs, traditions, and practices shared by members
of a particular society or community.
– It shapes individuals' worldview, social interactions, and
behavioral norms.
– Cultural knowledge is transmitted through socialization,
storytelling, rituals, and shared experiences.
– Examples include language, folklore, religious rituals,
etiquette, and cultural symbols.

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 Types of Knowledge
• Contextual Knowledge:
– Contextual knowledge refers to information and insights that
are relevant and meaningful within a specific context or
situation.
– It includes situational awareness, environmental factors, and
contextual cues that influence decision-making and behavior.
– Contextual knowledge enables individuals to adapt and
respond effectively to changing circumstances and challenges.
– Examples include spatial awareness, temporal considerations,
social dynamics, and organizational culture.

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 Types of Knowledge
Shallow Knowledge:
• Definition: Shallow knowledge refers to a superficial or limited understanding of a
subject. It often involves basic facts, definitions, or concepts without deeper
comprehension or insight.
• Characteristics:
– Surface-level understanding.
– Lack of depth or nuance.
– Limited applicability in complex situations.
– Easily forgotten or replaced.
• Examples:
– Memorizing vocabulary words without understanding their meanings or usage in context.
– Recognizing historical dates without understanding the events or significance behind them.
– Knowing mathematical formulas without understanding the principles or derivations
behind them.
– Recalling scientific theories without understanding the underlying concepts or
experimental evidence.

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 Types of Knowledge
• Deep Knowledge:
• Definition: Deep knowledge refers to a profound, comprehensive, and nuanced
understanding of a subject. It involves critical thinking, analysis, synthesis, and the
ability to apply knowledge in diverse contexts.
• Characteristics:
– In-depth understanding of underlying principles and concepts.
– Ability to analyze and evaluate complex issues or problems.
– Capacity for creative and original thinking.
– Application of knowledge in novel or unfamiliar situations.
• Examples:
– Understanding the historical context, causes, and consequences of significant events.
– Applying mathematical principles to solve real-world problems and formulate new theories.
– Conducting scientific research, designing experiments, and interpreting data to advance
knowledge in a field.
– Analyzing literary works, cultural artifacts, or philosophical texts to uncover deeper
meanings and themes.

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 Types of Knowledge
• Shallow (readily recalled) and deep
(acquired through years of experience)
• Deep: Characterised by deep (meta)
understanding of concepts. Typically
encoded as wisdom or meta knowledge

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 Levels of knowledge
• Levels of knowledge refer to the different stages or
degrees of understanding and awareness that
individuals or systems possess about a particular
subject, domain, or topic.
• These levels represent varying depths of
comprehension, ranging from basic familiarity to
advanced expertise.
• While the exact categorization of knowledge levels
may vary depending on context, the following are
common levels often considered:
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 Levels of knowledge
• Awareness:
– At the most basic level, awareness involves recognizing the existence or
presence of information, concepts, or phenomena.
– It signifies a rudimentary understanding or acknowledgment of a
subject without delving into its details or implications.
– Awareness serves as a foundation for deeper exploration and learning.
• Familiarity:
– Familiarity denotes a level of acquaintance or exposure to a topic,
concept, or domain.
– Individuals at this level possess a basic understanding of key terms,
principles, and characteristics associated with the subject.
– They may recognize common patterns, relationships, or applications
within the domain but may not have a comprehensive grasp of its
complexities.
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 Levels of knowledge
• Comprehension:
– Comprehension involves a deeper understanding and
interpretation of information, ideas, or phenomena.
– Individuals at this level can explain concepts,
processes, or theories in their own words and
demonstrate an ability to apply them in contextually
relevant situations.
– They understand the underlying principles,
assumptions, and implications associated with the
subject matter.

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 Levels of knowledge
• Proficiency:
– Proficiency signifies a high level of competence and skill
in a particular area of knowledge or expertise.
– Individuals at this level possess a thorough understanding
of advanced concepts, methodologies, and techniques
within the domain.
– They can effectively analyze problems, synthesize
information, and generate creative solutions.
– Proficient individuals may also demonstrate practical
proficiency through the application of knowledge in real-
world scenarios.
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 Levels of knowledge
• Mastery:
– Mastery represents the highest level of knowledge attainment,
characterized by exceptional expertise, insight, and mastery of
a subject.
– Individuals at this level possess an in-depth understanding of
complex theories, methodologies, and practices within the
domain.
– They demonstrate creativity, originality, and innovation in their
contributions to the field.
– Mastery often involves the ability to push the boundaries of
existing knowledge, challenge conventions, and make
significant contributions to the advancement of the discipline.

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 Good knowledge
• Good knowledge is characterized by several key
attributes and qualities that contribute to its
accuracy, relevance, reliability, and usefulness. Here
are some elements that constitute good knowledge:
• Accuracy: Good knowledge is factually correct and
aligned with verifiable evidence, empirical
observations, or established principles within a
particular domain. It is free from errors,
misconceptions, or distortions that may lead to
misinformation or misunderstanding.
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 Good knowledge
• Relevance: Good knowledge is pertinent and applicable
to the context or problem at hand. It addresses specific
questions, challenges, or objectives, providing insights
and solutions that are meaningful and actionable
within the given context.
• Validity: Good knowledge is logically sound and
supported by sound reasoning, evidence, or logical
inference. It is based on credible sources, authoritative
references, or robust methodologies that ensure the
integrity and validity of the information.

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 Good knowledge
• Clarity: Good knowledge is expressed in clear,
understandable language or representations that
facilitate comprehension and communication. It avoids
ambiguity, jargon, or technical complexities that may
hinder understanding among the intended audience.
• Completeness: Good knowledge provides a
comprehensive and well-rounded view of the subject
matter, covering relevant aspects, perspectives, and
dimensions. It addresses key questions, considerations,
and nuances associated with the topic, ensuring a
holistic understanding.
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 Good knowledge
• Consistency: Good knowledge maintains coherence
and consistency across different sources, viewpoints, or
pieces of information. It avoids contradictions,
discrepancies, or conflicts that may undermine
confidence in the validity and reliability of the
knowledge.
• Currency: Good knowledge reflects the most up-to-
date and relevant information available at the time of
its dissemination. It takes into account recent
developments, advancements, or changes within the
field or domain, ensuring its relevance and timeliness.
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 Good knowledge
• Accessibility: Good knowledge is accessible and
available to those who need it, regardless of their
background, expertise, or resources. It promotes
inclusivity, openness, and transparency in sharing
information and insights with a wide audience.
• Ethical Considerations: Good knowledge upholds
ethical principles and values, respecting the rights,
dignity, and integrity of individuals and communities. It
adheres to standards of honesty, fairness, and
accountability in the acquisition, dissemination, and use
of knowledge.
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 Good knowledge
• Utility: Good knowledge is practical and
valuable, offering solutions, guidance, or
insights that enable informed decision-
making, problem-solving, or innovation. It
empowers individuals and organizations to
achieve their goals, address challenges, and
create positive change.

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