3.

0 Compaction
Geotechnical Engineering
ENCV3G1

Samkelo Mpembe
Department of Civil Engineering
University of KwaZulu Natal
Room 214: Centenary Bld
[email protected]
 Compaction of Soil
 Soil compaction refers to the process of obtaining
higher density of soil by reduction of its pore space
through forced the expulsion of air.
 The particles of the soil are re-arranged into a dense
state by applying mechanical energy.
 Air voids are reduced to a minimum.
 Achieved by static or dynamic load applied on the soil
depending on soil type.
 Measured in terms of the dry unit weight of the soil, γd
Compaction of Soil
Introduction
 Purposes of Compaction
 Soil is often used as a construction material.
 Many earth filled structures are constructed with soil;
e.g. highway embankments, airport runways, railway
embankments, earth dams,, landfills etc
 When soil is used as a construction and foundation
material, the in-place soil should possess the required
engineering properties for the particular project.
 Compaction helps to produce soil with the appropriate
physical properties.
 Very helpful in making the soil denser so as to support
loads.
 Engineering Properties
Engineering properties enhanced by compaction;
 Reduction in the void ratio.

This is usually required for fill materials, and is sometimes

used for natural soils
 Compaction increases the soil strength – shear strength
 Compaction reduces settlements under working loads –
compressibility
 Compaction makes water flow through soil more difficult -
decreases permeability of the soil – required for earth dams
and embankments
 Compaction can prevent liquefaction during earthquakes –
by forcing soil fabric into a denser configuration by the
mechanical effort used in compaction
 Compaction Process
 Loose soils on construction sites are densified using equipment
that apply a compressive mechanical energy on the soil to reduce
void ratio.

Compaction = Densification =
Reduction in Volume of Voids

 Soils may be ferried to the site, placed and compacted.

 The process is instantaneous and is carried out on partially
saturated soils.
 Densification can not be achieved on soils that are fully saturated.
 Compaction is a function of the water content, the soil type and
the compactive effort /energy applied.
 Factors affecting Compaction
 Water content of soil
- Water is required for compaction of soil. When the soil is dry and
stiff, it is difficult to compact.
- Water aids the particles to slide over each other making the soil more
workable.
- Water helps to increase soil densification during compaction only up
to a certain optimum amount of water content.
 The type of soil being compacted e.g. gradation.
- Granular soils (sands), fine grained soils (clays)
- Compaction of granular soils by vibration.
- Compaction of fine grained soils by static pressure.
 The amount of compactive energy used;
- Higher compaction is achieved with high compactive energy
 Laboratory Compaction
 The fundamentals and principles of compaction in soils were
defined by Ralph R. Proctor in the early 1930’s while
constructing dams.
 Proctor showed that there exists a relationship between the
water content of soil and the degree of density to which the
soil can be compacted.
 He developed a test in 1933 to help specify levels of
compaction of a soil for a project.
 This test is widely used as the standard laboratory
compaction test and is commonly referred to as the Proctor
test.

9
 Laboratory Compaction
• Proctor determined that for a specific amount of compaction
energy applied on a soil, there is one moisture content referred
to as the Optimum Moisture Content at which a particular
soil attains maximum density.
• The purpose of the laboratory compaction test is to determine
the proper amount of mixing water to use when compacting
the soil in the field and the resulting degree of denseness
which can be expected from compaction at this optimum water
content.
• The laboratory proctor test is an impact compaction. A
hammer is dropped several times on a soil sample in a mould.
The mass of the hammer, height of drop, number of drops,
number of layers of soil, and the volume of the mould are
specified.
10
Field Specification

11
aboratory Compaction

12
Proctor Compaction Test Equipment

13
 Laboratory Compaction
 Equipment Handle

collar (mould
extension)

Sleeve guide

Cylindrical Hammer for

soil mould compacting soil

Base plate
Mould volume Hammer mass Hammer drop
(cm3) (kg) (mm)

Standard 1000 2.5 300

Modified 1000 4.9 450

 Laboratory Equipment for Proctor Test

 Proctor mould with a detachable collar assembly and base

plate.
 Manual hammer weighing 2.5 kg and equipped to provide a
height of drop to a free fall of 300 mm (Standard Proctor).
 Sample Extruder.
 A sensitive balance.
 Straight edge.
 Squeeze bottle
 Mixing tools such as mixing pan,
spoon, trowel, spatula etc.
 Moisture cans.
 Drying Oven
15
Laboratory Equipment
1 2.5 kg hammer
2 1 litre (943.3 cm3) mould
3 Base plate
4 Detachable collar
5 Plastic mixing bowl
6 Measuring cylinder
7 Moisture content tins
8 Mixing spoon
9 Palette knife / spatula
10 Scoop
11 Balance (0.01 g)
12 Vernier calliper

16
Laboratory Equipment

17
Standard Proctor Compaction Test

2.5 kg
hammer
 Uses 2.5 kg hammer
 Dropped 300 mm
 Mould filled in 3 equal lifts 300 mm drop

 27 blows of hammer per lift

 Proctor Compaction Test - Procedure

 Prepare about 5 specimens

of soil at increasing water
contents about 2 % apart.
The range of moisture
contents used are based on
feel and experience.
 Proctor Compaction Test - Procedure

 Compact each sample into

the mould with standard
procedures by applying 27
blows of the 2.5kg hammer Hammer
on each of the 3 layers.

 Distribute the blows Cured soil

uniformly over the soil
Mould
surface and ensure that the
hammer always falls freely
and is not obstructed by soil
in the guide tube.

20
 Proctor Compaction Test - Procedure

 Allow hammer to free fall twenty seven (27) times moving the
hammer over the soil surface of the soil layer in a defined
pattern .

The first 4 blows The successive blows

21
 Proctor Compaction Test - Procedure

 Strike off excess soil so

that the mould contains a
known volume of soil
based on the measured
mould dimensions.
(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e)

Procedure
 Proctor Test Procedure - Summary
 Several samples of the same soil at different water contents are
compacted in a Proctor mould.
 Compaction is carried out in a specific pattern on each layer
placed in the mould.

 For each sample, measure the weight of the mould and the water
content of the soil in the mould .
 The water content of the soil is determined by cutting out a
sample of the compacted soil and placing it in a pre-weighed
moisture content tin for oven drying.
 Proctor Test Results
 Determine the total density,  and the water content of each compacted
sample. The volume and weight of the empty mould are pre-measured
before the test.

Mt  Derive dry density, d from

 , d  the known  and w
Vt 1 w

OR (in terms of unit weight, )

 Determine moist/bulk unit weight, 
 Calculate dry unit weight, d

Wt 
  , d 
Vt 1w

 Plot dry density/dry unit weight and water content for each point
 Proctor Test Results

From the graph the optimum moisture content, mopt / wopt

that gives the maximum dry unit weight, (gdry)max or
maximum dry density, (d)max is determined.
 Proctor Test Results
The peak point of the compaction curve
• The peak point of the compaction curve is the point with
the maximum dry density, dmax. (or MDD)

• Corresponding to the maximum dry density d max is a

water content known as the optimum water content w opt
(also referred to as the optimum moisture content, OMC).

Note that the maximum dry density is only a maximum for a specific
compactive effort and method of compaction. This does not necessarily
reflect the maximum dry density that can be obtained in the field.
Proctor Test Results

Holtz and Kovacs, 1981

Proctor Test Results

Holtz and Kovacs, 1981

Typical Compaction Curves

Well Graded

Uniformly Graded
 Typical Values
Typical Values
dry )max (kN/m3) mopt (%)

Well graded sand SW 22 7

Sandy clay SC 19 12
Poorly graded sand SP 18 15
Low plasticity clay CL 18 15
Non plastic silt ML 17 17
High plasticity clay CH 15 25

 Gs is constant, therefore increasing maximum dry unit weight

is associated with decreasing optimum moisture contents
 Typical values are not used for design as soil is highly variable
 Field specifications
During construction of soil structures (dams, roads) there is
usually a requirement to achieve a specified dry unit weight/dry
density

Reject Accept
Accept
Dry unit weight

Dry unit weight

Reject

Moisture content Moisture content

(a) > 95% of (modified) maximum (b) >95% of (modified) maximum dry
dry unit weight unit weight and m within 2% of mopt
 Relative Density
For cohesionless e.g. sands and gravels soils (without fines)
alternative specifications for compaction are used.

Compactions of these soils are based on achieving a certain

relative density.

Relative density or density index is the ratio of the

difference between the void ratios of a cohesionless soil in
its loosest state and existing natural state to the difference
between its void ratio in the loosest and densest states.

emax  e
Id 
emax  emin
 Relative Density

emax  e
Id 
emax  emin
e = current void ratio
emax = maximum void ratio in a standard test
emin = minimum void ratio in a standard test

Id = 1 when e = emin and soil is at its densest state

Id = 0 when e = emax and soil is at its loosest state
 Field Applications
• Using soil as a construction material is desirable due to its
availability, its durability and comparatively low cost.
• When soil is used for construction, it is typically placed in
layers in order to develop a required shape and elevation. Each
layer is compacted before placing a subsequent layer.
• Properly placed and compacted soils possess strength and
support capabilities that are as good as or better than many
natural soil formations.
• Using compacted earth fills, it is possible to support
buildings, highways and parking areas on the compacted soil
mass.
• This is referred to as a Compacted Earth Fill or a
Structural Fill or Engineered Fill.
 Field Compaction

Compaction in the field is achieved by traversing a relatively

thin layer of soil with mechanical equipment for a sufficient
number of passes until the required density is achieved.
The properties of a good compacted soil are;
• Adequate strength
• Incompressibility to minimize settlements
• Stability against volume change as the conditions vary e.g.
water content
• Appropriate permeability for the project purpose.
 Factors Which Affect Field Compaction
Source: Suryakanta (2014)

1. Type of soil
Type of soil has a great influence on its compaction characteristics.
Normally, heavy clays, clays & silts offer higher resistance to compaction
where as sandy soils and coarse grained or gravelly soils are amenable for
easy compaction. The coarse grained soils yield higher densities in
comparison to clays. A well graded soil can be compacted to higher density.
2. Compactive effort / energy
The term compactive effort or compactive energy simply means type of
equipment or machinery used for compaction. Greater the compactive
effort, greater will be the compaction. The equipments used for compaction
of soil can be broadly classified into the following categories
a) Kneading type equipment
b) Static type equipment
c) Dynamic or impact type equipment
d) Vibratory type equipment
Type of compaction equipment to be used is mainly dependent upon the
type of soil to be compacted. The following table can be used as a reference
to decide type of equipment for different type of soil.
 Factors Which Affect Field Compaction
Source: Suryakanta (2014)
3. Layer thickness / Thickness of lift
Degree of compaction is inversely proportional to the layer thickness, i.e.
for a given compactive energy, thicker layer will be less compacted
as compared to thin layer. The reason is, for thicker soil layer the energy
input per unit weight is less. Therefore it is very important to decide the
right thickness of each layer to achieve the desired density. Thickness of
layer is dependent upon several other factors such as
• Type of soil, Type of roller,Weight of roller, Contact pressure of drum, etc.
Generally 200 to 300 mm layer thickness is used in the field to achieve
homogeneous compaction.
4. Number of roller passes
It is obvious that density increases as the no of roller passes increases. But
there are two important things we have to remember.
a) After certain number of roller passes, there is no further increase in density
b) More number of roller passes means more cost of project.
So it is very crucial to determine the number of roller passes for a given
type of equipment, for a given type of soil at optimum moisture content.
Therefore field compaction trial is carried out to economise compaction
aspect of earthwork, while achieving desired level of density based on Lab
tests (Modified compaction test, and relative density test,).
 Factors Which Affect Field Compaction
Source: Suryakanta (2014)

5. Moisture content
Proper control of moisture content in soil is necessary for achieving desired
density. Maximum density with minimum compacting effort can be
achieved by compaction of soil near its OMC (optimum moisture content).
In the field the natural moisture content (NMC) of soil is either less than
OMC or above OMC. If NMC of the soil is less than OMC, calculated
amount of water should be added to soil with sprinkler attached to water
tanker and mixed with soil by motor grader for uniform moisture content.
When NMC of the soil is more than OMC, it is required to be dried by
aeration to reach up to OMC.
6. Contact pressure
Contact pressure depends on the weight of the roller wheel and the contact
area. In case of pneumatic roller, the tyre inflation pressure also determines
the contact pressure in addition to wheel load. A higher contact pressure
increases the dry density and lowers the optimum moisture content.
 Factors Which Affect Field Compaction
Source: Suryakanta (2014)

7. Speed of rolling
Speed of rolling has a very important bearing on the roller output. There are
two important things we have to consider.
• First, the greater the speed of rolling, the more length of embankment
can be compacted in one day.
• Second, at greater speed there is likely to be insufficient time for the
desired deformations to take place and more passes may be required to
achieve the required compaction.
So we need to make a balance between these two things. Generally the
speed of all rollers is limited to about 5 km/hour. In case of vibratory roller
speed was found to be significant factor because its number of a vibration
per minute is not related to its forward speed. Therefore, the slower the
speed of travel, the more vibrations at a given point and lesser number of
pass required to attain a given density.
 Compaction equipment
Compaction is achieved by specialist plant designed to apply energy
to the soil mass by means of pressure through kneading, remoulding
or vibration.
Equipment Most suitable soils
Smooth wheeled rollers, Well graded sand-gravel, crushed
static or vibrating rock, asphalt
Rubber tyred rollers Coarse grained soils with some
fines
Grid rollers Weathered rock, well graded
coarse soils
Sheepsfoot rollers, static Fine grained soils with > 20%
fines
Sheepsfoot rollers, vibratory as above, but also sand-gravel
mixes
Vibrating plates Coarse soils, 4 to 8% fines
Tampers, rammers All types
Impact rollers Most saturated and moist soils
 Compaction equipment
Compaction is achieved by specialist plant designed to apply energy
to the soil mass by means of pressure through kneading, remoulding
or vibration.

Type of soil Suggested Equipment /

machinery
Crushed rock, gravelly Smooth wheel roller
sand
Gravels, sand Rubber tyred roller
Sands, gravel, silty soil, Pneumatic tyred roller
clayey soils
Silty soil, Clayey soil Sheepfoot roller
Soils in confined zone Rammer
Sands Vibratory roller
Large single drum compactor
Jumping jack rammer

Sheepsfoot roller Pneumatic (rubber) tyred roller

Grid rollers
STUDY UNITS
 Basic Characteristics of Soils, Craig, R.F. (2004),
Soil Mechanics, 7th Edition, E & FN Spon
Chapter 1, pp 1 – 27.

SELF STUDY ACTIVITIES

 Craig, R.F. (2004), Soil Mechanics, 7th Edition, E &
FN Spon:
Chapter 1, p 28, Problems 1.1 – 1.7
 Criteria of Assessment
At the end of the study themes 1, 2 & 3, you should be able to:
 Define what constitutes an engineering soil
 Describe the fundamental properties of soil particles that are of
importance in engineering (shape, size and texture)
 Classify soils according to the Unified classification system.
 Relate the meaning and importance of the plasticity or Atterberg limits in
soils and have a general feel for typical values of these indexes in soils.
 Soil rapid assessment procedures
 Define the term specific gravity and know the typical range of values in
soils
 Calculate and use all the phase relationship formulae in dry and fully
saturated soils.
 Calculate the relative density in sandy soils and understand the relevance
of this index.
 Determination of soil optimum moisture content and maximum dry
density