DATA

COLLECTION
DATA COLLECTION
What is Data?
Data is a collection of facts, such as
numbers, words, measurements,
observations or even just descriptions of
things Data is all around us. But what exactly is
it?
Data is a value assigned to a thing.

Color, Shape, Number,

Condition, Size
Quantitative and Qualitative
Data
• Quantitative data collection methods rely
on random sampling and structured data
collection instruments that fit diverse
experiences into predetermined
• response categories
They produce results that are easy to
summarize and compare
• Quantitative research is concerned with
testing hypotheses derived from theory and/or
being able to estimate the size of a
• phenomenon of interest
Depending on the research question,
participants may be randomly assigned to
different treatments.
Quantitative and Qualitative Data
• Qualitative data collection methods play
an important role in impact evaluation by
providing information useful to understand
the processes behind observed results
and assess changes in people’s
perceptions of their well‐being
• Qualitative methods can be used to improve
the quality of survey‐based quantitative
evaluations by helping generate
evaluation hypothesis; strengthening
the design of survey questionnaires and
expanding or clarifying quantitative
evaluation findings.
Quantitative and Qualitative
Data
Typical quantitative data gathering strategies
include:
• Administering surveys with closed‐ended questions
(e.g., face‐to face and telephone interviews, mail
questionnaires, etc.)
•Experiments/clinical trials.
• Observing and recording well‐defined events (e.g.,
counting the number of patients waiting in emergency
at specified times of the day).
• Obtaining relevant data from management
information systems. The qualitative methods
most commonly used in evaluation can be
classified in three broad categories:
•In‐depth interview
•Observation methods
•
 Survey
• A survey is a research technique, which
is used to gather information from a
sample of respondents by employing a
questionnaire.
•

• Surveys are normally carried out to

obtain primary data.
• Primary data are the data that are
gathered first hand to answer the
research question being investigated.
 Surve
y
• Surveys are conducted by:
– Meeting the respondents in person
– Contacting the respondents through the
telephone
– Conducting surveys through email
– Conducting online surveys through the
Internet

• Researchers adopt any of these

methods depending on their
requirement.
 A Classification of Survey
Methods
Surve
y
Method
s

Telephone Personal Mail Electroni

c

In- Mall Computer- E- Interne

Home Interce Assisted mail t
pt Personal
Interviewing
Tradition Compute Mail Mail
al r- Intervie Pane
Telephon Assisted w l
e Interviewin
Telephon
g
e
 How do I organize a
survey?
• Plan Ahead
– Set aside time to prepare questions
• Identify Goals
– Clearly identify the information that you want to obtain
from the survey
• Provide Instruction
– Explain why you are conducting the survey and provide any
additional instructions that they will need to complete
the questionnaire.
• Length of Survey/Questionnaire
– short (1-2 pages) and simple questionnaires usually attract
higher response rates than long (4 + pages) and
complex ones.
QUESTIONNAIRES
Questionnaires often make use of checklist
and rating scales. These devices help simplify
and quantify people's behaviors and attitudes.
A checklist is a list of behaviors,
characteristics, or other entities the
researcher is looking for. Either the researcher
or survey participant simply checks whether
each item on the list is observed, present or
true or vice versa. A rating scale is 6 more
useful when a behavior needs to be evaluated
on a continuum. They are also known as Likert
scales
Mail Questionnaires
Advantages:
• Can be sent to a large number of people.
• Saves the researcher time and money compared to
interviewing.
• People are more truthful while responding to the
questionnaires regarding controversial issues in particular
due to the fact that their responses are anonymous.
• Allow the respondent to answer at their leisure.
Disadvantages:
• In most cases, the majority of people who receive
questionnaires don't return them. Time – mail
surveys take longer than other types of surveys
Web‐based questionnaires
• A new and inevitably growing methodology is the use of Internet
based research. This would mean receiving an e‐mail on which you
would click on an address that would take you to a secure web‐site to
fill in a questionnaire
Advantages:
• This type of research is often quicker and less detailed.
• Very cost effective
Disadvantages:
• Excludes people who do not have a computer or are unable to access a
computer
• Need to have access to email addresses
• Many worksites have screening mechanisms in place blocking access
to employee emails
• The validity of such surveys may be in question
 Questionnaire structure
• Well designed questionnaires are highly structured so
that the data can be analyzed quantitatively and
systematically.
• Proper questionnaire design is essential to ensure that
you obtain valid responses to the questions asked.
• In order to obtain accurate relevant information:
– give some thought to what questions we ask
– how we ask questions ,
– the order we ask questions, and the general layout of the
questionnaire.
 Types of Questions:
• Closed Format
– Respondents are forced to choose between several
given options.
– multiple choice, yes/no and ranking
• Advantages of closed format:
– Easy and quick to fill in
– Easy to code, record, and analyze
results quantitatively
– Easy to report results
 Types of
Questions:
• Open Format: the respondents can formulate their
own answers.
– use the open format if you are looking for
respondents to provide specific comments or feedback.

• Advantages of open format:

• Allows exploration of the range of possible themes arising from
an issue
 How do I ask the
questions?
• Use short and simple sentences.
• Ask for only one piece of information at a time.
– Example: Please rate the Global Environment Class in terms
of its content and presentation
– Should be divided into two parts:
– question one: “Please rate the class in terms of its
content”
– question two: “Please rate the class in terms of its
presentation.
– Avoid negatives if possible.
 How should I arrange the
questions?
• Some general rules are:
– Go from general to specific.
– Go from easy to difficult.
– Start with closed format questions.
– Start with questions relevant to the main subject.
– Do not start with demographic and personal question

• Questionnaires must first be piloted and evaluated before the

actual survey
 Online resources
• Online surveys can be developed for little or no cost
through services such as Survey Monkey (
http://www.surveymonkey.com/).

• This site and similar services may help you to set up

your questions, administer your response, and analyze
your responses.
INTERVIEWS
• An interview is a purposeful discussion
between two or more people
• Help to gather valid and reliable data that
are relevant to research question and
objectives.
• In Quantitative research (survey research),
interviews are more structured than in
Qualitative research
• In a structured interview, the researcher asks a
standard set of questions and nothing more
 Types of Interviews
• Structured (pre-decided questions)
• Unstructured (no pre-decided questions)
• Selection (job selection)
• Focused (focused on given experience of respondent)
• Group (in group of 6-8)
• Individual (single person)
• Qualitative & Quantitative (on basis of subject matter)
• Clinical interviews
• Depth interviews
Face‐to‐face interviews
Advantages:
• Enables the researcher to establish rapport with
potential participants and therefore gain their cooperation
•Yields the highest response rates in survey research
• Allows the researcher to clarify ambiguous answers
and when appropriate, seek follow‐up information
Disadvantages:
•Impractical when large samples are involved
•Can be time consuming and expensive.
Telephone interviews
Advantages:
•Less time consuming
•Less expensive
•Researcher has ready access to anyone who has a landline telephone.
•Higher response rate than the mail questionnaire.
• Can be fully automated using CATI (Computer Assisted
Telephone Interviewing) saving data processing time.
•Disadvantages:
•The response rate is not as high as the face‐to‐face interview
• The sample may be biased as only those people who have landline
phones are contacted (excludes people who do not have a phone, or
only have cell phones).
Computer Assisted Personal Interviewing
(CAPI)
• CAPI is a form of personal interviewing, but instead of
completing a questionnaire, the interviewer brings along a
laptop or hand‐held computer to enter the information
directly into the database.
Advantages:
• Saves time involved in processing the data.
• Saves the interviewer from carrying around hundreds of
questionnaires.
Disadvantages:
• Can be expensive to set up.
• Requires that interviewers have computer and typing
skills.
 Experiments

• Research experiments can be conducted for studying

cause-and-effect relationships.
In‐depth interviews
• In‐depth interviews are a useful qualitative data
collection technique that can be used for a
variety of purposes, including needs
assessment, program refinement, issue
identification, and strategic planning
• In‐depth interviews are most appropriate for
situations in which you want to ask open‐
ended questions that elicit depth of
information from relatively few people (as
opposed to surveys, which tend to be
more quantitative and are conducted with
larger numbers of people)
Observation Methods
• One of the most common methods for
qualitative data collection, participant
observation is also one of the most demanding
• It requires that the researcher become a
participant in the culture or context being
• observed
Participant observation often requires
months or years of intensive work because
the researcher needs to become accepted as
a natural part of the culture in order to
assure that the observations are of the
natural phenomenon
Document review & Focus groups
• Document review is a way of collecting data by reviewing existing
documents
The documents may be internal to a program or organization (such as
•records of what components of an asthma management program were
implemented in schools) or may be external (such as records of
emergency room visits by students served by an asthma management
program)
A focus group is a group interview of approximately six to twelve
•people who share similar characteristics or common interests
A facilitator guides the group based on a predetermined set of
•
topics. The facilitator creates an environment that encourages
participants to share their perceptions and points of view. Focus
groups are a qualitative data collection method, meaning that the data
is descriptive and cannot be measured numerically
Focus Groups
Advantages:
• Quick and relatively easy to set up
• The group dynamic can provide useful information that individual
data collection does not provide
• Is useful in gaining insight into a topic that may be more difficult to
gather through other data collection methods
Disadvantages:
• Susceptible to facilitator bias
• The discussion can be dominated or sidetracked by a few individuals
• Data analysis is time consuming and needs to be well planned in
advance
• Does not provide valid information at the individual level
• The information is not representative of other groups
 Observati
on is a process where the
• Observation technique
respondents are observed without any interruption by
the observers.

• Example:
– The shopping patterns of customers in supermarkets
assessed by the researcher or by counting the number of
vehicles can qualify as observation research.
Structured VS Unstructured Observation

• For structured observation, the

researcher specifies in detail what is to be
observed and how the measurements are
to be recorded, e.g., an auditor performing
inventory analysis in a store.

• In unstructured observation, the

observer monitors all aspects of the
phenomenon that seem relevant to the
problem at hand, e.g., observing
children playing with new toys.
Disguised VS Undisguised Observation

• In disguised observation, the

respondents are unaware that they are
being observed.
Disguise may be accomplished by using
one-way mirrors, hidden cameras, or
inconspicuous mechanical devices.
Observers may be disguised as shoppers or
sales clerks.

• In undisguised observation, the

Natural VS Contrived Observation

• Natural observation involves observing

behavior as it takes places in the
environment. For
example, one could observe the behavior of
respondents eating fast food in Burger King.

• In contrived observation, respondents'

behavior is observed in an artificial
environment, such as a test kitchen.
OBSERVATION METHODS

Observation Methods

Personal Mechanical Trace

Observation Audit Analysis
Content Observation
Analysis
Observation
1. Personal
Methods
Observation
• A researcher observes actual behavior as it
occurs.
•
The observer does not attempt to
manipulate the phenomenon being
observed but merely records what takes
• place.

For example, a researcher might record

traffic counts and observe traffic flows in a
department store.
Observation
Methods
2. Mechanical
Observation

•Donot require respondents' direct

participation
– On-site cameras (still, motion picture, or

– video) Optical scanners in supermarkets

•Do require respondent

involvement
– Eye-tracking

– monitors Voice
– pitch analyzers
Devices measuring
response latency
Observation Methods
3.Content Analysis

• The objective, systematic, and

quantitative description of the
manifest content of a
communication.
• The unit of analysis may be words,
characters, themes, space and time
measures or topics
• Analytical categories for classifying the
units are developed and the communication
is broken down according to prescribed
rules.
 Observation
4. Trace Analysis
Methods
Data collection is based on physical traces, or
evidence, of past behavior.

 The selective erosion of tiles in a museum indexed by the

replacement rate was used to determine the relative

popularity of exhibits.
The number of different fingerprints on a page was used to

gauge the readership of various advertisements in a
magazine.

The position of the radio dials in cars brought in for service
was used to estimate share of listening audience of various
radio stations.

The age and condition of cars in a parking lot were used to
assess the affluence of customers.

The magazines people donated to charity were used to
determine people's favorite magazines.
Internet visitors leave traces which can be analyzed to
Relative Advantages of
Observation
• They permit measurement of actual behavior
rather than reports of intended or preferred
behavior.
• There is no reporting bias, and potential
bias caused by the interviewer and the
interviewing process is eliminated or
reduced.
• Certain types of data can be collected
only by observation.
• If the observed phenomenon occurs
frequently or is of short duration,
observational methods may be cheaper and
Relative Disadvantages of Observation
• The reasons for the observed behavior may
not be determined since little is known about
the underlying motives, beliefs, attitudes, and
• preferences.
Selective perception (bias in the researcher's
• perception) can bias the data.
Observational data are often time-consuming
and expensive, and it is difficult to observe
• certain forms of behavior.
In some cases, the use of observational methods
may be unethical, as in observing people without
their knowledge or consent.
It is best to view observation as a complement to
survey methods, rather than as being in
SAMPLING METHODS
 SAMPLING……

• What is your population of interest?

• To whom do you want to generalize
your results?
• All doctors
• School children
• Filipinos
• Women aged 15-45 years
• Other
• Can you sample the entire population?

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42
SAMPLING BREAKDOWN
 SAMPLING…….

STUDY POPULATION

SAMPLE

TARGET POPULATION

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 Types of Samples

• Probability (Random) Samples

• Simple random sample
• Systematic random sample
• Stratified random sample
• Multistage sample
• Multiphase sample
• Cluster sample
• Non-Probability Samples
• Convenience sample
• Purposive sample
• Quota
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 Process
• The sampling process comprises several
stages:
• Defining the population of concern
• Specifying a sampling frame, a set of
items or events possible to measure
• Specifying a sampling method for
selecting items or events from the frame
• Determining the sample size
• Implementing the sampling plan
• Sampling and data collecting
• Reviewing the sampling process
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 SAMPLING FRAME
• In the most straightforward case, such as the
sentencing of a batch of material from production
(acceptance sampling by lots), it is possible to
identify and measure every single item in the
population and to include any one of them in our
sample. However, in the more general case this is
not possible. There is no way to identify all rats in
the set of all rats. Where voting is not
compulsory, there is no way to identify which
people will actually vote at a forthcoming election
(in advance of the election)
• As a remedy, we seek a sampling frame which
has the property that we can identify every single
element and include any in our sample .
• The sampling frame must be representative of the
46 population
 PROBABILITY SAMPLING

• A probability sampling scheme is one in

which every unit in the population has a chance
(greater than zero) of being selected in the
sample, and this probability can be accurately
determined.

• . When every element in the population does

have the same probability of selection, this is
known as an 'equal probability of selection'
(EPS) design. Such designs are also referred to
as 'self-weighting' because all sampled units are
given the same weight.
47
 PROBABILITY SAMPLING…….

• Probability sampling includes:

• Simple Random Sampling,
• Systematic Sampling,
• Stratified Random Sampling,
• Cluster Sampling
• Multistage Sampling.
• Multiphase sampling

48
 NON PROBABILITY SAMPLING
• Any sampling method where some elements of population
have no chance of selection (these are sometimes referred
to as 'out of coverage'/'undercovered'), or where the
probability of selection can't be accurately determined. It
involves the selection of elements based on assumptions
regarding the population of interest, which forms the
criteria for selection. Hence, because the selection of
elements is nonrandom, nonprobability sampling not
allows the estimation of sampling errors..
• Example: We visit every household in a given street, and
interview the first person to answer the door. In any
household with more than one occupant, this is a
nonprobability sample, because some people are more
likely to answer the door (e.g. an unemployed person who
spends most of their time at home is more likely to answer
than an employed housemate who might be at work when
the interviewer calls) and it's not practical to calculate
these probabilities.

49
 NONPROBABILITY
SAMPLING…….
•Nonprobability Sampling includes:
Accidental Sampling, Quota Sampling and
Purposive Sampling. In addition,
nonresponse effects may turn any
probability design into a nonprobability
design if the characteristics of
nonresponse are not well understood,
since nonresponse effectively modifies
each element's probability of being
sampled.

50
 SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING

•Applicable when population is small,

homogeneous & readily available
•All subsets of the frame are given an equal
probability. Each element of the frame thus
has an equal probability of selection.
•It provides for greatest number of possible
samples. This is done by assigning a number
to each unit in the sampling frame.
•A table of random number or lottery system
is used to determine which units are to be
selected.
51
 SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING……..

• Estimates are easy to calculate.

• Simple random sampling is always an EPS design,
but not all EPS designs are simple random
sampling.

• Disadvantages
• If sampling frame large, this method
impracticable.
• Minority subgroups of interest in population may
not be present in sample in sufficient numbers for
study.

52
 SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING
• Systematic sampling relies on arranging the
target population according to some ordering
scheme and then selecting elements at regular
intervals through that ordered list.
• Systematic sampling involves a random start and
then proceeds with the selection of every kth
element from then onwards. In this case,
k=(population size/sample size).
• It is important that the starting point is not
automatically the first in the list, but is instead
randomly chosen from within the first to the kth
element in the list.
• A simple example would be to select every 10th
name from the telephone directory (an 'every 10th'
sample, also referred to as 'sampling with a skip of
10').
53
 SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING……
• As described above, systematic sampling is an EPS method,
because all elements have the same probability of selection
(in the example given, one in ten). It is not 'simple random
sampling' because different subsets of the same size have
different selection probabilities - e.g. the set
{4,14,24,...,994} has a one-in-ten probability of selection,
but the set {4,13,24,34,...} has zero probability of selection.

54
 SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING……

• ADVANTAGES:
• Sample easy to select
• Suitable sampling frame can be identified
easily
• Sample evenly spread over entire reference
population
• DISADVANTAGES:
• Sample may be biased if hidden periodicity in
population coincides with that of selection.
• Difficult to assess precision of estimate from
one survey.

55
 STRATIFIED SAMPLING

• Where population embraces a number of distinct

categories, the frame can be organized into
separate "strata." Each stratum is then sampled as
an independent sub-population, out of which
individual elements can be randomly selected.
• Every unit in a stratum has same chance of being
selected.
• Using same sampling fraction for all strata ensures
proportionate representation in the sample.
• Adequate representation of minority subgroups of
interest can be ensured by stratification & varying
sampling fraction between strata as required.

56
 STRATIFIED SAMPLING……
• Finally, since each stratum is treated as an
independent population, different sampling
approaches can be applied to different
strata.
• Drawbacks to using stratified sampling.
• First, sampling frame of entire population
has to be prepared separately for each
stratum
• Second, when examining multiple criteria,
stratifying variables may be related to
some, but not to others, further
complicating the design, and potentially
reducing the utility of the strata.
• Finally, in some cases (such as designs
with a large number of strata, or those with
57 a specified minimum sample size per
group), stratified sampling can potentially
 STRATIFIED SAMPLING…….

Draw a sample from each stratum

58
 CLUSTER SAMPLING
• Cluster sampling is an example of 'two-
stage sampling' .
• First stage a sample of areas is chosen;
• Second stage a sample of respondents
within those areas is selected.
• Population divided into clusters of
homogeneous units, usually based on
geographical contiguity.
• Sampling units are groups rather than
individuals.
• A sample of such clusters is then
selected.
59
• All units from the selected clusters are
studied.
 CLUSTER SAMPLING…….

• Advantages :
• Cuts down on the cost of preparing a
sampling frame.
• This can reduce travel and other
administrative costs.
• Disadvantages: sampling error is higher
for a simple random sample of same
size.
• Often used to evaluate vaccination
coverage in EPI

60
 CLUSTER SAMPLING…….

• Identification of clusters
• List all cities, towns, villages & wards of cities
with their population falling in target area under
study.
• Calculate cumulative population & divide by 30,
this gives sampling interval.
• Select a random no. less than or equal to
sampling interval having same no. of digits. This
forms 1st cluster.
• Random no.+ sampling interval = population of
2nd cluster.
• Second cluster + sampling interval = 4th cluster.
61 • Last or 30th cluster = 29th cluster + sampling
interval
 CLUSTER SAMPLING…….

• Two types of cluster sampling methods.

• One-stage sampling. All of the
elements within selected clusters are
included in the sample.
• Two-stage sampling. A subset of
elements within selected clusters are
randomly selected for inclusion in the
sample.

62
Difference Between Strata and
Clusters
• Although strata and clusters are both
non-overlapping subsets of the
population, they differ in several ways.
• All strata are represented in the
sample; but only a subset of clusters
are in the sample.
• With stratified sampling, the best
survey results occur when elements
within strata are internally
homogeneous. However, with cluster
sampling, the best results occur when
elements within clusters are internally
63
heterogeneous
 MULTISTAGE SAMPLING

• Complex form of cluster sampling in which two

or more levels of units are embedded one in the
other.
• First stage, random number of districts chosen
in all
• states.
• Followed by random number of talukas, villages.
•
• Then third stage units will be houses.
•
• All ultimate units (houses, for instance)
selected at last step are surveyed.
64
 MULTISTAGE SAMPLING……..

• This technique, is essentially the process of

taking random samples of preceding random
samples.
• Not as effective as true random sampling, but
probably solves more of the problems inherent
to random sampling.
• An effective strategy because it banks on
multiple randomizations. As such, extremely
useful.
• Multistage sampling used frequently when a
complete list of all members of the population
not exists and is inappropriate.
• Moreover, by avoiding the use of all sample
units in all selected clusters, multistage
sampling avoids the large, and perhaps
65 unnecessary, costs associated with traditional
 MULTI PHASE SAMPLING

• Part of the information collected from whole

sample & part from subsample.

• In Tb survey MT in all cases – Phase I

• X –Ray chest in MT +ve cases – Phase II
• Sputum examination in X – Ray +ve cases - Phase
III
•
• Survey by such procedure is less costly, less
laborious & more purposeful

66
 MATCHED RANDOM SAMPLING
• A method of assigning participants to
groups in which pairs of participants are first
matched on some characteristic and then
individually assigned randomly to groups.
• The Procedure for Matched random sampling can
be briefed with the following contexts,
• Two samples in which the members are clearly
paired or are matched explicitly by the researcher.
For example, IQ measurements or pairs of identical
twins.
• Those samples in which the same attribute, or
variable, is measured twice on each subject, under
different circumstances. Commonly called
repeated measures.
• Examples include the times of a group of athletes
for 1500m before and after a week of special
67 training; the milk yields of cows before and after
being fed a particular diet.
 QUOTA SAMPLING
• The population is first segmented into
mutually exclusive sub-groups, just as in
stratified sampling.
• Then judgment used to select subjects or units
from each segment based on a specified
proportion.
• For example, an interviewer may be told to
sample 200 females and 300 males between the
age of 45 and 60.
• It is this second step which makes the technique
one of non-probability sampling.
• In quota sampling the selection of the sample is
non-random.
• For example, interviewers might be tempted to
interview those who look most helpful. The
problem is that these samples may be biased
because not everyone gets a chance of selection.
68 This random element is its greatest weakness and
quota versus probability has been a matter of
 CONVENIENCE SAMPLING
• Sometimes known as grab or opportunity sampling
or accidental or haphazard sampling.
• A type of nonprobability sampling which involves the
sample being drawn from that part of the population
which is close to hand. That is, readily available and
convenient.
• The researcher using such a sample cannot
scientifically generalize about the total population from
this sample because it would not be representative
enough.
• For example, if the interviewer was to conduct a
survey at a shopping center early in the morning on a
given day, the people that he/she could interview would
be limited to those given there at that given time,
which would not represent the views of other members
of society in such an area, if the survey was to be
conducted at different times of day and several times
per week.
• This type of sampling is most useful for pilot testing.
69 • In social science research, snowball sampling is a
similar technique, where existing study subjects are
CONVENIENCE SAMPLING…….

Use results that are easy to get

70
70
 Judgmental sampling or
Purposive sampling
- The researcher chooses the sample
based on who they think would be
appropriate for the study. This is used
primarily when there is a limited number
of people that have expertise in the area
being researched

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 PANEL SAMPLING
• Method of first selecting a group of participants
through a random sampling method and then
asking that group for the same information again
several times over a period of time.
• Therefore, each participant is given same survey or
interview at two or more time points; each period of
data collection called a "wave".
• This sampling methodology often chosen for large
scale or nation-wide studies in order to gauge
changes in the population with regard to any
number of variables from chronic illness to job
stress to weekly food expenditures.
• Panel sampling can also be used to inform
researchers about within-person health changes
due to age or help explain changes in continuous
dependent variables such as spousal interaction.
• There have been several proposed methods of
72 analyzing panel sample data, including growth
curves.
 Questions?

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