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The document discusses the importance of understanding computer organization, which includes the functional components, characteristics, and performance of computer systems. It outlines the different types of computers, their functional units, and the roles of various components such as the control unit, ALU, memory, input, and output units. Additionally, it covers the evolution of processors and the significance of memory hierarchy and bus structures in computer architecture.

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mannooxx8
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6 views

1

The document discusses the importance of understanding computer organization, which includes the functional components, characteristics, and performance of computer systems. It outlines the different types of computers, their functional units, and the roles of various components such as the control unit, ALU, memory, input, and output units. Additionally, it covers the evolution of processors and the significance of memory hierarchy and bus structures in computer architecture.

Uploaded by

mannooxx8
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PPT, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Why Study Computer Organization

• To be a student of computing, you should


have some understanding and appreciation
of a computer system’s

– functional components
– their characteristics
– their performance
– their interactions
• Understanding of computer organization helps
you to
– structure a program so that it runs more
efficiently on a real machine
– select the most cost-effective computer for
use
– reinforce concepts from programming
languages and operating system facilities
Introduction

• A Computer is a fast electronic calculating


machine that accepts digitized input
information, processes it according to a list
of internally stored instructions and produces
the resulting output information.
• A set of instruction that perform a task is
called a program

• The internal storage is called computer


memory
Different types of computer exist categorized
according to its size, speed and cost.

• PC / Desktop
• Notebook (Laptop)
• Workstation
– CAD/CAM
• Mainframes
– Business data processing
• Supercomputer
– Weather forecasting / Aircraft design & simulation
Handheld/Pocket PC PDA Tablet PC

Desktop Laptop
Workstation
Mainframe
Supercomputer
Computer Organization

• Organization: Association, Club


• Functions & designs of various units,
storing & processing information, input
& output units
i.e. Computer hardware + Computer
architecture
• Computer Hardware is the electronic circuits
and electromechanical equipment that constitutes
the computer.

• Computer Architecture is defined as the


functional operation of the individual hardware
units in a computer system and the flow of
information among and the control of those
units.
Computer Functional Units

Arithmetic
Input
& Logic
Memory
Output Control

I/O Processor
Functional Units
• Input unit - accept the coded information from human
operators from electromechanical devices
• Memory – information received is stored for future
reference or immediately used by ALU to do the desired
operations
• Arithmetic and Logic unit (ALU)-the processing
steps are determined by a program stored in the
memory.(also called datapath)
• Output unit-the result is send back to the outside
world
• Control unit-all these actions are coordinated
Five classic components of all computers:
1. Control Unit ; 2. ALU; 3. Memory; 4. Input; 5. Output

}
}Processor I/O
Generations
1st generation vacuum tubes 40000 operations per
second
2nd generation transistors 200000 operations per
second
3rd generation chip 1000000 operations
per second
4th generation large scale 10000000 operations
integrated per second
circuits
5th generation VLSI 100000000 operations
per second
2006 - Dual-Core processor
2007 - Core 2 duo processor
The Processor Chip
Intel 4004
• Introduced in 1970
– First microprocessor
• 2,250 transistors
• 12 mm2
• 108 KHz
Intel 8086
• 29,0000 transistors
• 33 mm2
• 5 MHz
• Introduced in 1979
Intel 80486
• 1,200,000 transistors
• 81 mm2
• 25 MHz
• Introduced in 1989
– 1st pipelined
implementation
Pentium
• 3,100,000 transistors
• 296 mm2
• 60 MHz
• Introduced in 1993
– 1st superscalar
implementation
Pentium III
• 9,5000,000 transistors
• 125 mm2
• 450 MHz
• Introduced in 1999
• Data are no:s & encoded characters that are
used as operands by the instructions

• Source program – high level language

• Object program- machine language program

• Bits - binary digits,0 or 1, ON or OFF


Input unit
• Computer accepts coded information thru
input units, which read the data.
• In keyboard, when a key is
pressed:-letter/digit to binary code &
transmitted thru cable to memory or the
processor
• Joystick, trackball, mouse, microphone etc
Output unit
• Counterpart of input unit
• Function is to send the result to the outside
world
• Display devices, Printers etc
• Some graphic displays provide both input
as well as output function
Memory
• Stores programs and data

• Primary & Secondary

• Primary(main memory) – fast memory,


volatile(evaporating), work place

• RAM – 32, 64, 128, 256, 512MB ,1GB & 2GB


• 1 bit of information stored in each cell

• Word- groups of cells of fixed size (n bits)

• Word length- no: of bits in each word

• Address is needed to locate a word (no:s that


identify successive locations)

Capacity of the memory is one factor that


characterizes the size of a computer.
• Memory access time: time required to access
one word

• Registers : high speed storage elements. faster


than cache

• Secondary memory: non volatile, slower,


cheaper, cannot be accessed directly by CPU,
higher storage capacity (CD & Thumb)
• Cache – It is random access memory
that a computer microprocessor can
access more quickly than it can access
regular RAM. (L1, L2 - level of closeness)

OR

• A small, fast memory that acts as a buffer for


a slower, larger memory
• Memory hierarchy: The hierarchical
arrangement of storage in current computer
architectures

• Registers - L1 cache - Main memory - L2 cache


- virtual - Secondary
Or
cache- main- secondary
ALU
• Operations are executed here

• To do the operation
- fetch from memory
- do the operation in ALU
- store back in memory

• Operands are stored in registers when brought


to processor
• Arithmetic
– Addition
– Subtraction
• Registers
– Multiplication
– Division
– Comparison - data registers
- Special purpose register
- Memory buffer register
• Logic - Memory data register
– AND - Memory address register
– OR
– NOT
– XOR
Control Unit

• Coordinates / Directs other Units

• Nerve center that sends control signals to other units


and senses their states
• Timing signals are generated (signals that determine
when a given action is to take place)
• Data transfer btw processor and memory is also
controlled
Computer Operations are

• Accept information through an input unit and


store it in the memory.
• Information stored in the memory is fetched,
under program control, into an ALU to process.
• Processed information leaves through an output
unit.
• All activities are directed by the control unit.
• Add LOCA, R0

operand at location LOCA + operand


at register R0 => R0

• Add LOCA, R1
Add R1, R0

Original value at
LOCA +R1=>R1
LOCA is only
R1+R0=>R0 preserved
IR - Instruction Register
• holds instruction that is currently being
executed,
• generate timing signals.

PC – Program counter
• Keeps tracks of the execution of a program
• Contains memory address of the next
instruction to be fetched and executed
(points to next instruction fetched from
memory)
MAR- Memory Address Register
• Holds the address of the location to be
accessed

MDA- Memory Data Address


• Data to be written into and read out of the
addressed location

MAR and MDA are registers that facilitate


communication with memory
How memory & processor can be connected ?
Bus Structure
• Bus – a group of lines that serves as a
connecting path for several devices

• A Bus is a group of lines such that a word of


data can be transferred (one bit per line) at a
time.
• Buses are communication links allowing data,
instructions and memory addresses to be referenced
between different components (CPU, main memory
and I/O devices) in a computer system.

• Single bus structure - low cost, flexibility for


attaching peripherals devices, speed of operation

• Buffer Register- attached with devices to hold the


information during transfer

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